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tihvavy  of  t:he  theological  ^eminarjo 

PRINCETON  •  NEW  JERSEY 


•a^D* 


Part  of  the 
Addison  Alexander  library, 
rjresented  by  R.L.  and  A.  Stuprt 


(  "^-^  r,^ 


COMMENT AEY 


THE    APOCALYPSE. 


MOSES    STUART, 

PROFESSOR  OF  3ACRED  LITERATURE  IN  THE  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 
AT  ANDOVER,  MASS. 


VOLUME  11. 


ANDOVER: 
ALLEN,  IM  OR  RILL  AND  WARD  WELL, 

JNEW  YORK  :  M.  H.  NEWMAN. 
1845. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845,  by 

MOSES   STUART, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  ihe  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


ANDOVER : 

ALLEN,  MORRILL  AND  WARDWELL, 

PRINTERS. 


CONTENTS  or  VOL.  II. 


12,  Cabbalistic^ 
the  first  catastr 


5—8 


MATTERS  SPECIALLY  DISCUSSED  IN  THIS  VOLUME. 

On  the  word  Jehovah,  and  the  corresponding  o  tui'  6  i]v  xal  o  ig/oftEvng 

On  tJie  scvin  spirits  before  the  throne 

On  the  quotation  of  Zech.  12:  10  in  Rev.  1:  7 

The  seven  cities  in  Asia  to  which  the  seven  churches  belonged 

Analysis  of  the  seven  Epistles  to  the  seven  churches 

On  the  Nicolaitans  of  Rev.  2:  6     . 

The  hidden  manna  and  the  white  stone  » 

In  what  sense  is  Christ  uqxv  of  the  creation  of  God  ? 

The  theophany  in  chap.  iv. 

The  four  living  creatures      .......      112- 

How  could  the  Lamb  take  the  sealed  book  ? 
Are  the  seven  predicates,  in  the  doxology  of  5: 
Fundamental  principles  in  the   exegesis  of 
vi — xii.  ..... 

Sealing  of  the  servants  of  God 

How  are  the  twelve  tribes  made  out  in  Rev.  7: 

The  seven  trumpets     .... 

The  locusts  under  the  first  woe-trumpet 

The  horsemen  under  the  second 

The  little  open  Iwok  of  10:  2 

The  temple  that  is  measured,  11:  1,  2 

The  two  witnesses  of  1 1:  3 

The  beast  in  1 1:  7 

On  the  second  catastrophe,  xii- — xix. 

Woman  clothed  with  the  sun 

Who  is  the  beast  from  the  sea  ?  13:  1  seq. 

Blasphemous  names  and  worship  of  the  Roman  emperors 


Paac 
15 

17 

30 

42 

56 

62 

76 

97 

106 

-119 

127 

135 

ophe, 

138—151 

168 

172 

180 

186 

195 

205 

213 

219 

231 

245 

249 

264 

274 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  11. 


The  second  beast  from  the  land  .         .         . 

The  144,000  on  mount  Zion,  and  symbols  of  victory 

Answer  to  Neander  on  the  same  .... 

The  seven  vials ;  comparison  between  them  and  the  trumpets 

Design  and  nature  of  chap.  xvii.  .... 

Concluding  remarks  on  chap,  xii — xix. 

Third  catastrojihe ;  Gog  and  Magog       .... 

Resurrection  of  the  martyrs  ..... 

Historico-exegetical  inquiry  respecting  Gog  and  Magog 

General  judgment;  Death  and  Hades  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire 

New  Jerusalem  compared  with  Ezekiel's  new  city 

Exc.  I.  Angelology  of  the  Scriptures 

Exc.  n.  Symbolical  use  of  numbers 

Exc.  in.  The  wounded  head  of  the  beast  (13:  3),  and  the  sixth 

(17:  3,  10) 

Exc.  IV.  Th.e  number  of  the  beast,  13:  18       . 
Exc.  V.  Designations  of  time  in  the  Apocalypse 
Exc.  VL  Millennial  resurrection 
Appendix:  Herder  on  the  Apocalypse 


kinj 


283 
291 
293 
308 
318 
351 
353 
356 
364 
370 
378 
397 
409 

434 
452 
459 
474 
491 


# 


m 


COMMENTARY. 


INSCRIPTION.— CHAP.  1. 1—3.  ■* 

(1,  2.)  The  Revelation  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  God  gave  him,  to  show  his 
servants  what  must  speedily  come  to  pass;  and  sending  by  his  angel  he  signified 
to  his  servant  John,  who  proclaimed  the  word  of  God  and  tiie  testimony  of  Jesus 
Christ,  whatsoever  he  saw. 

This  apparently  simple  and  intelligible  sentence  has  been  regarded 
by  many  as  replete,  in  the  original,  with  real  difficulties.  It  has  there- 
fore been  the  subject  of  much  controversy  among  critics  ;  nor,  down  to 
the  present  hour,  has  all  doubt  respecting  its  true  meaning  been  removed. 
The  manner  in  which  I  have  translated  and  pointed  it,  will  probably  be 
called  in  question  by  some,  and  may  be  wholly  rejected  by  others. 
Ajtnidst  the  multitude  of  discrepant  opinions  and  criticisms  respecting 
the  passage,  it  would  be  difficult  to  select  any  one  which  appears  to  my 
mind  as  deserving  of  unqualified  approbation.  After  an  attentive  ex- 
amination of  most  of  them,  I  have  felt  compelled  to  choose  a  meaning 
that  seems  appropriate  to  the  true  grammatical  construction  of  the  text ; 
and  I  must  now  present  to  the  reader  the  grounds  and  reasons  of  nay 
choice. 

A  critical  examination  of  the  words,  and  then  of  the  apparent  mean- 
ing of  each  clause,  comes  first  in  order,  before  we  can  arrive  at  any 
general  conclusion  in  respect  to  the  meaning  of  the  whole. 

u^no-AuXviUig  has  often  been  said  not  to  be  a  word  of  pure  Greek 
idiom.  "  Proprie  Scripturarum  est,"  says  Jerome,  commenting  on  it  as 
it  occurs  in  Gal.  1:  12;  and  he  then  adds:  A  nullo  sapientum  saeculi 
apud  Graecos  usurpatur.  But  he  is  mistaken  ;  for  Plutarch  uses  it  (see 
Rob.  Lex.  sub.  v.),  and  Porphyry  employs  it,  Vita  Plot.  c.  16.  Julius 
Pollux  also,  in  his  Onomast.,  ranks  together  as  synonymes  8ia-A(0.inpcUf 
iy.y.alvU'a(,  dnoxalv  xJj  ai ,  8i,)Maca,  etc.  The  verb  draxulvTZTco  i^, 
of  the  same  meaning  substantially  as  dTZo-AulvTzrco,  i.  e.  it  literally  sig-^ 
nifies  to  uncover,  to  disclose,  and  so  (secondarily)  to  bring  to  light,  to 
repeal,  etc.     ^va)iaXv\\)ig  may  therefore  be  well  translated  revelation, 

VOL.  II.  1 


1^' 


« 


CiiAr.  I.  1. 


It  is  here  employed  as  the  title  of  the  book  at  the  head  of  Avhich  it  stands, 
and  of  course  it  hicks  the  article  ij,  vvliidfh,  if  prefixed,  might  convey  a 
wrong  sense,  i.  e.  it  might  mean  the  revelation  in  a  mbnadic  sense,  ex- 
cUidiug  other  books  from  the  hke  cUiim ;  or  else  it  might  imply  some 
pi'cvious  mention  of  the  book,  or  previons  knowledge  "tsf  it  in  the  read* 
Lf's  mind ;  all  of  which  would  be  incongruous.  In  English,  however, 
fliire  lies  not  the  same  objection  gainst. employing  the  definite  ai-ticle 
in  this  case,  as  our  usage  does  not  altogetiigr  accord  with  the  Greek. 
Accordingly,  wfifind  the  definite  article  Me  commonly  employed  bi-fore 
the  word  Revelation  ;  and  I  have  conformed  to.  this  usage  in  the  version 

•     above.  •   • 

That  the  word  u7Toy,dXv^pi^,  as  here  employed,  means  a  revelation  of 
an  exffnordinary  nature,  a  disclosure  of  thiiajs  to  come  made  by  special 

<^  divine  arrangement  and  aid,  is  'plain  from  tha  coutext  itself,  which  de- 
^•eloi>6  the  extraordinary  means  by  which  it  waSj^made,  and  then  calls  it 
(v.  3)  by  the  name  of  «roog) //?£/'«,  which,-  by  sacred  usage,  imports  what 
has  been  stated.  The  same  thing  is  manifest  from  a  comparison  of  the 
Ti'ord  (iTZoy.dXiMug,  as  employed  in  the  like  sense,  in  2  Cor.  12:  1.  G^. 
1:''12.  2:  2.  Eph.  3:  3.  These  passages  cast  light  on  that  part  of  the 
meaning  which  indicates  special  divine  interposition  ;  while  the  idea  of 
developing  or  disclosing  something  secret,  hitden,  mysterious,  or  inac- 
cessible to  common  minds,  is  at  the  same  time  specially  brought  to  view 

•§fhy  the  use  of  u7Zoy.dkvxf.'ig  in  such  passages  as  Rom.  IG:  25.  1  Cor,  14: 
G,  26.  Sirach  22:  22.  42:  1.  The  context  abundantly  eoniirms  such  a 
sense  here  ;  for  it  affirms  two  things,  viz.  first,  tlbat  this  dTToy.dlvxpig  has 
respect  to  what  is  to  take  place  in  future,  and  secondly,  that  God  and 

*  Christ  and  his  angel  all  cooperate  in  making  the  disclosure  to  John. — 
There  is  indeed  a  possible  sense  of  the  word  dnoydXvxiug  which  is  dif- 
ferent from  liiis,  viz.  when  it  means  manifestation  or  exhibition  of  any 
thing  or  person  ;  in  which  case  it  is  nearly  equivalent  to  imqidvsia,  e.  g. 
in  1  Cor.  1:  7.  2  Thess.  1:  7.  1  Pet.  1:  7,  13.  4:  13 ;  and  this  sense 
Heinrichs  (strangely  enough)  adopts  here.  But  what  then  must  become 
of  the  obvious  sense  of  ijv  edcoxEv  avzcp  o  &eog,  dciiai  y..  r.  A.  ? 

ydTzoxdlvxiJig  'Jr^oov  Xqigtov  —  Is  Christ  subject  or  object  ?     That  is, 
is  ne  the  personage  who  is  in  possession  of  the  revelation  and  disclos|p 
it  according  to  his  will ;  or  is  he  the  individual  to  wdiom  the  revela- 
tion has  respect,  and  in  regard  to  whom  it  makes  disclosures  ?     The 
^  Genitive  case,  'LjooiJ  Xqigzov,  would  in  itself  bear  either  construction ; 

^'  and  both  constructions  are  common  throughout  the  Scriptures  ;  but  here 
the  sequel — /'jv  tdcoy.ev  6  S^eog  renders  it  quite  certain  that  the  fii'st  sense 
is  the  only  one  which  the  passage  will  bear. 

Hv  ...  6  d'tog,  an  important  declaration  in  respect  to  its  bearing  on 
the  person  and^office  of  Christ ;  but  one,  I  may  add,  altogether  in  unison 


i 


■^ 


•»  CriAP.  T.  1.  3 

with  other  Scriplnros,  specially  witli  (lie  Gospel  of  John. — "E^Mxev,  im- 
parted, comnufvicated,  which'  is  the  appropriate  shade  of  meaning;  in 
tliis  case,^iiinsinucli  as  information,  insfrnctton  is  coneemed  with  it. 
See  the  same  shade  of  sense  in  John  17:  7,  8,  thriee,  and  also  Acts 
7:  .'^8,  "With  the  particular  meaning  of  this  verb  there  is  indeed  no 
dithcultj ;  but  the  sentiment  of  the  whole  passajie  is  a  question  oplitli- 
culty,  if  there  bea.ny;  fed*  the  appears  to  represent  the  RedeemdLeven 
in  his  jrlorified  state,  (for  such  it  Was  when  the  Apncaltj)S(»  was  wnttcn),  ■■"M^M 
as  dependent  on  the  Father  ft>r  revelations  of  sueli  a  nature.  But  let  ^^^^ 
the  reader  now  eomparo  John  5:  19,  20.  7;  16.  8:  28  (where  fdu^u^e  is?  * 

said  of  the  Father  i»  resjiect  to  the  Son,  which  well  explains  e8oy/.£vAn^ 
our  text).  1-2:  41*.  14:  10.  17:  7,  8.    Matt.  11:  27.    i^ark  13:32.    Acts 
1:  7  (in  connection  with  Mark  13:  32).     Most  fully  doef'  Paul^%xhibit 
his  belief  in    the  sentiment   of  mediatorial  dependence  in  1  Cor.  15:   « 
24 — 28.     By  this  last. passage  it  appears,  that  Christ  remains  4n  ihe 
state  of   Virerferent  merely  until  the  consummation  of  all  things,  when 
his  delegated  dominion  will  b»  given  up.     The  texts  in  Mark   13:  32 
and  Acts  1:  7  (comp.  Luke   2:  52)  show,  that   Christ  as  to  his  human 
nature   was  progr-essire  in  knowledge,  and  of  course   that  there  were 
some  things  not  yet  known  to  him  in  this  nature  before  his  ascension         - 
to  glory  ;  and  among  tlfese  things  was  the  particular  and  exact  time  of 
his  coming.     The  i'dco/.ti'  of  our  text  Avould  seem  however  to  im|)ly,  that 
even  after  his  exaltation  the  Mediator  received  those  disclosures  froniy 
file  Father,  which  are  made  in  the  Apocalypse.     This  is  perfectly  con- 
gruous with  the  view  given  by  Paul  ifa  1  Cor.  15:  24 — 28,  which  ne- 
cessarily implies  the  dpjiendcnt  state  of  the  Mediator  until  the  final  con- 
summation of  all  things,  and  that  his  dominion  as  Mediator  is  only  a   *' 
delegated  one.     I  may  add,  that  the  sentiment  of  our  text  is  truly  Jo- 
hannean,  whoever  the  author  of  it  may  be.  •  ♦ 

^iiha  ■/..  T. )..  Nothing  could  be  more  appropriate  to  the  nature  of 
the  lx)ok  before  us,  than  the  choice  of  the  verb  dn^ai  here,  which  nat- 
urally and  usually  means  to  s/iow  or  exhibit  anything  to  the  evidence  of 
ike  senses,  i.  e.  to  present  to  view,  to  submit  to  inspection.  The  verb 
has  here  a  palpable  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  sequel,  in  which  John 

•is  taught  a  ^h  ydt'cixyat  \>y  sensible  tokens  and  symbols.     The   meta- 
pluyrical  sense,  teach,  disclose,  is  very  unfrequent,  even  in  the  New  Tes- 

I  tament;  and  of  the  four  instances  arranged,  under,  this  head  in  Rob. 
Lex.,  two  at  least  do  not  properly  belong  there,  but  refer  to  sensible  e^ 
hibitions.  The  composite  idea^  however,  of  disclosing  by  the  use  iff 
signs  and  symbols,  belongs  to  dtl^ui  in  the  case  before  us. 

if  o/V  Sov).oii;  avTov.  The  critical  editions  differ  as  to  the  reading 
avToi),  which  Griesbach,  Knapp,  Vaterf'and  PLifln  adopt ;  while.  Wet- 
Stein,  Bengel,  Matthai,  and  Lachmanu  read  uvrnv.     The  latter  reading 


Chap.  I.  1. 


would  refer  the  pronoun  to  God,  while  avrov  refers  it  to  Christ.  The  ' 
sense  is  not  materially  different  in  either  case ;  for  the  servants  of  God 
are  tlie  servants  of  Christ,  and  vice  versa.  That  Christ  is  the  subject 
(implied)  of  the  Infinitive  Stl'^ai  seems  to  be  clear  from  the  tenor  of 
the  sentiment ;  for  the  sequel  shows  that  Christ,  or  his  angel,  appears 
and  makes  all  the  disclosures  of  the  book. — But  who  are  the  dovXoig  ? 
Are  they  prophets,  apostles,  teachers  ?  Or  does  this  word  here  desig- 
nate the  worshippers  of  God,  the  servants  of  Christ  in  general  ?  For 
the  former  sense  one  might  contend,  so  far  as  the  usus  loquendi  in  re- 
spect to  dovXog  is  concerned ;  see  Rom.  1:  1.  GaL  1:  10.  Phil.  1:  1. 
Col.  4:  12.  Tit.  1:  1.  James  1:  1.  2  Pet.  1:  1.  Jude  v.  1.  Rev.  22:  9 
(avvdovlog).  So  the  well  known  usage  in  Hebrew  of  i-i^n"^  "la;;,  in  a 
multitude  of  instances ;  see  Ges.  Lex.  sub.  v.  But  then  it  is  equally 
true,  that  dovXog  (and  13?)  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  mass  of  the 
people  of  God,  to  the  community  of  his  worshippers  ;  even  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse itself  is  this  the  case.  Rev.  2:  20.  7:  3.  11:  18  (where  it  is  ex- 
pressly used  as  comprehending  ayioi  and  TiQOCftjtui).  19:  2,  5.  22:  3. 
Still,  the  other  sense  of  dovlog,  viz.  prophet,  teacher,  is  also  common  to 
the  Apocalypse ;  e.  g.  1:  1  (dovXcp  .  .  .  'Itodvvr^),  10:  7  where  TZQoqifjTag 
is  added  as  epexegetical,  15:  3.  In  22:  6  it  may  designate  either  the 
prophets,  or  the  pious  in  general ;  for  the  sense  is  good  if  taken  in  either 
way.  In  Hebrew,  ii'^l^"^  l^v  is  altogether  a  common  appellation  for  a 
true  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  and  the  whole  Jewish  nation  are  often  ad- 
dressed as  being  the  servants  of  God,  because  they  are  his  professed 
worshippers. — In  such  a  case  then  as  the  one  before  us,  the  context  must 
decide  ;  and  this  evidently  favours  the  sense  of  the  word  in  Rev.  2:  20, 
viz.  the  mass  of  the  Chi-istian  community  or  Christians.  Accordingly 
the  seven  churches  of  Asia  are  immediately  addi-essed  in  the  sequel, 
and  to  them  the  book  before  us  is  dedicated  (so  to  speak)  and  sent, 
plainly  in  order  to  be  published  or  circulated  by  them.  It  is  then  to 
the  churches  that  the  things  in  the  Apocalypse  are  shown. 

"A  del  yevsa&ai,  what  must  take  place,  i.  e.  by  an  arrangement  of  an 
overruling  and  all-controlhng  pi'ovidence.  In  other  words  ;  what  is  pre- 
dicted in  the  Apocalypse  will  certainly  come  to  pass.  Such  things  are 
not  left  to  chance,  they  are  not  fortuitous,  for  8el  yevta&ui,  they  must 
needs  happen.  In  other  words  still ;  God,  who  gave  a  revelation  of 
future  things  to  Christ,  has  ordained  them  and  will  bring  them  to  pass. 

^Ev  Tuyei,  a  controverted  expression,  on  which  much  has  been  made 
to  depend.  Some  commentators,  recognizing  the  evident  fact  that  the 
apocalyptic  predictions  cover  much  ground  and  require  a  long  series  of 
years  for  their  accomplishment  (see  Rev.  20:  4,  7),  have  zealously  en- 
deavoured to  show  that  rdyu  designates  only  the  maturity  of  things  for 
any  particular  event,  and,  as  connected  with  this,  the  certainty  of  the 


m 


Chap.  1.  1.  5 

event  itself.  So  Eichhorn  ;  anil  after  liim,  Ileinriclis  and  others.  But 
*  f  the  texts  appoiiled  to  liy  thorn  do  not  show  tliis ;  nor  is  there  any  neces- 
sary affinity  between  the  certainty  of  a  thing  and  its  speedy  accomplish- 
ment. E.  g.  a  general  judgment  is  certain  ;  but  it  is  not  therefore  speed- 
ily to  take  place.  The  plain  and  obvious  sense  of  fv  rd/fi  is  speedily, 
quickly,  shordy ;  so  o  •muqo<;  fyyv^:,  in  v.  3,  plainly  interprets  it.  See 
also  Kev.  2:  IG.  3:  11.  11:  U.  22:  7,  12,  20.  If  now  anything  clear 
can  be  made  out  from  the  Apocalypse,  it  is  at  least  clear  that  chaj).  iv — 
xi.  have  special  reference  to  Jerusalem  and  Judea.  Equally  clear  is  it 
that  chap,  xii — xix.  have  reference  to  persecuting  and  heathen  Kome. 
In  both  cases  persecution  was  urgent  and  raging,  when  the  Apocalypse 
was  written  ;  which,  as  we  have  seen  (Vol.  I.  §  16),  .was  before  the  de- 

Istruction  of  Jerusalem.  Now,  although  the  closing  part  of  Jthe  Revela- 
tion relates  beyond  all  doubt  to  a  distant  period,  and  some  of  it  to  a  fu- 
ture eternity,  yet  the  portion  of  the  book  which  contains  this  is  so  small, 
teid  that  part  of  the  book  which  was  speedily  fullilled  is  so  large,  that  no 
reasonable  difficulty  can  be  made  concerning  the  declaration  before  us. 
'i-w-  ru/i(,  i.  e.  speedily,  did  the  things,  on  account  of  which  the  book 
was  priucipally  written,  in  fact  tiike  place.  And  although  the  Komish 
persecutions  were  afterwards  repeated,  yet  it  is  enough  to  vindicatO"  the 
expression  before  us,  that  the  overthrow  of  the  then  persecutipg  power 
was  very  speedy,  and  that  this  overtlirow  was  an  eai-nest  of  the  fate  of 
all  future  persecutcwrs. 

Kat  iGi'iitartv,  lit.  showed  or  indicated  by  signs  or  symbols.  The  verb 
Giifiaiv(a  evidently  comes  from  ai^a  =  a/jidiiov,  sign,  token,  symbol.  The 
word  is  exquisitely  chosen  in  reference  to  the  sequel  of  the  book,  almost 
all  of  which  consists  of  symbolic  representation.  In  the  like  way  is  the 
verb  aiiitaii'co  employed  in  John  12:  33.  18:.  32,  (referring  to  what 
Jesus  had  said  on  a  former  occasion,  see  in  12:  31 — 33).  21:  19.  Li  a 
similar  sense  it  occurs  irt  Acts  11:  28.  25:  27  ;  yet  less  exactly  accord- 
ing to  the  natural  and  original  meaning  of  the  word,  for  in  Acts  it  sig- 
nifies to  indiccde  in  a  generic  sense.  Plutaax-h  (De  Orac.  Delph.  p.  104) 
represents  Heraclitus  as  saying,  in  respect  to  the  oracle :  ^Ovze  Xtyai  ov- 
T£  y.QvnrH,  u)j.u  (yt^fidvei,  i.  e.  it  neither  speaks  out  plainly,  nor  wholly 
conceals,  but  indicates  by  symbols  or  in  an  enigmatical  way,' — But  with 
■what  is  this  verb  to  be  constructed  ?  Who  is  agent,  and  what  is  object  ? 
Li  all  mstances  aijove  referred  to,  in  John  and  in  Acts,  the  verb  has  an 
object  after  it,  although  a  compound  one.  Is  it  so  here  ?  Dr.  Robin- 
son, in  his  Lexicon,  has  put  it  down  as  absolute,  i.  e.  without  an  object. 
Most  critics  have  represented  ijr  (at  the  beginning  of  the  second  clause 
and  refcn-ing  to  dnoy.u).inj't>;)  as  the  object  or  Ace.  case  after  tatjiiurev. 
But  this  is  a  hard  construction.  My  own  view  of  the  cjise  is,  as  the  trans- 
lation above  indicates,  that  oau  elde  is  the  object,  which,  according  to 


6  Chap.  I.  1. 

the  usual  law  of  brftchylogy  in  the  Greek  language,  stands  for  ixtTra 
oca  elde.  In  this  case  all  is  plain  and  easy,  specially  when  we  regard 
og  i/AUQzvQtjGe  .  .  .  'Jijoov  Xqkjzov  as  a  parenthetic  and  epex^getical 
clause ;  which  it  plainly  is.  Then,  moreover,  we  have  this  simple  sen- 
timent :  '  Christ,  employing  an  angel  as  his  messenger,  by  symbols  dis- 
closed to  his  servant  John  whatsoever  things  he  saw  in  pro})hetic  vision.' 
At  all  events,  this  interpretation  accords  well  with  the  state  of  facts.  It 
should  beTemarked,  also,  that  although  the  word  8ei^ai  is  finely  chosen, 
iGi'ifiavs  is  evidently  a  still  more  exquisitely  select  designation  of  what 
was  done  in  order  to  make  a  revelation  to  John. 

But  who  is  the  agent  for  ^oijiAave  ?  Most  interpreters  say  that  it  is 
Jesus  Christ;  and  they  appeal  to  Rev.  22:  16,  "I,  Jesus,  have  sent 
mine  angel  to  testify  to  you  these  things  respecting  the  churches." 
This  would  be  conclusive,  were  it  not  that  there  is  another  passage 
which  seems,  with  equal  or. greater  force,  to  plead  for  another  construc- 
tion ;  i.  e.  Rev.  22:  6,  "  The  Lord  God  of  the  spirits  of  the  prophets 
hath  sent  his  angel  dniiai  roiti8ovXnt.g,  uvtov  a  Ssi  yevsad^ai  iv  ruyei." 
Can  this  be  anything  less  than  a  direct  appeal  to  the  very  words  of 
Rev.  1:  1,  which  have  already  been  considered?  Moreover  as  {ysog  is 
the  undoubted  agent  to  the  verb  edcoxev,  and  iaj^fiavm  stands  connected 
with  thatvverb  by  xai,  without  any  intimation  of  a  change  of  agent,  so 
this  would  seem  to  be  sufficient  to  settle  the  question  upon  fair  grounds. 
Had  Li'icke  noted  the  passage  in  Rev.  22:  G,  he  might  have  saved  him- 
self the  trouble  he  has  taken  (Stud,  imd  Kritiken,  IX.  p.  655)  to  ac- 
count for  a  change  of  agent  in  the  case  of  iai'niuve.  '  Such  changes/ 
he  says,  '  are  not  a  matter  of  doubt  in  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  here  dti^ia 
ToTg  dovXoi^-  •/..  T.  X.  which  precedes,  shows  beyond  a  question  that 
Christ  is  the  agent,  and  therefore  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  agent  to 
f(7J/jM«t'e.'  But  as  nothing  important  is  gained  for  the  sense  of  the  pas- 
sage by  such  a  change  of  agents,  and  as  sucli  changes  (I  venture  to 
say)  are  not  so  frequent  in  the  Apocalypse  as  Ci'icke  seems  to  intimate, 
so  we  may  construe  the  whole  in  the  regular  grammatical  order,  mak- 
ing 0  d^hog  the  agent.  Still,  I  do  not  think  any  violence  is  done,  if 
Christ  be  made  the  agent. 

JiTioGtelXag  makes  a  difficulty,  not  as  to  subject  or  agent,  for  this 
must  be  the  same  which  is  connected  with  i(7t'jiiarf.,  but  as  to  object. 
Sending  wliat,  by  the  angel?  JItzo-auXviLhv  is  the  common  answer. 
But  this,  as  a  book,  he  did  not  send ;  nor  as  a  communication  did  he 
send  it  by  an  angel,  for  John  saw  the  symbols  with  his  own  prophetic 
eye,  and  the  angel  was  merely  his  companion,  helper,  or  interpreter. 
In  tliis  strait,  if  we  turn  now  to  Rev.  22:  6,  we  shall  find  the  matter 
thus  stated:  dntGrstls  rov  uyyaXov  avzov  dei^ui  zoig  dovXoig  uvtov.  In 
the  passage  before  us,  then,  anoatdXag  x.  r.  X.  stands  connected  with 


Cii^p.  I.  2.  7 

ffn'Sta  ■/..  T.  X.  implied,  aiul  the  tlioii;;h(,  iu  the  Aviiter's  iiiiild,  if  lilled 
(lilt,  wouUl  spi'in  to  1)0,  •/.(CI,  (i7naTtiku<;  diu  rnv  uyyt'kov  uvzov  [kV  to 
^tl'itu  X.  z.  /..],  iaijfiun  zo}  dovlco  x.  r.  X.  Instead  ot"  this,  Ewuld  takes 
(<,TO(7r6A(<s"  ill  the  ubsohite  sense,  Hke  i^S  nVr  in  Ex.  4:  13.  Tlie 
w  liole  elyiise  might  indeed  be  understood  in  u  kind  of  absolute  way,  as 
being  ecjuivalent  to  the  following  expression  —  making  use  of  his  angel 
as  an  agent,  lie  signified,  ete.  But  tiie  mode  of  solving  it  suggested  by 
22:  C>,  is  mftro  grammaticid  and  more  fueile.  The  present  form  of  the 
clause  is  plainly  brachyfcgical. 

JiwXo),  i\s  designating  prophets,  apostles,  and  special  messengers  of 
God,  has  already  been  explained  abo\  e. — Ainov  is  the  right  reading 
here,  arfd  not  avzov  as  some  editions  ha\'e  it,  and  even  Lachmann ;  for 
v.hetlier  God  or  Christ  be  the  ageut  to  ioi[nftv£  and  dnoaruila'i,  ai'Tod 
would  be  the  more  regular  reading;  see  N.  Test.  Grumm.  §  110.  5. 
Note  2. 

'Jcodn'ij  is  in  apposition  with  8ov).o),  and  is  designed  as  an  explanato- 
ry adjunet.     But  as  there  were  doubtless  many  Johns  at  that  time,  this 
propei*  name  itself  would  seem  to  need  some  further  explanation.     Ac-  ' 
eordingly  we  have  it  ij^  the  sequel. 

"Os  ifiUQtvni^ct .  ^.  T.  Xqicszov,  also  an  epexegetieal  clause  Avhicli  has 
been  itself  more  discussed  and  controverted,  than  almost  anything  in 
the  whole  Apocalypse.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  sentiment  of 
the  clause  stands  co^ected  with  the  great  critical  inquiry :  Who  was 
the  author  of  the  Revelation  ?  A  large  class  of  critics  find  here  de- 
scribed the  Gospel  of  John  (zov'koyov  rov  ■{}eoiJ),  the  P^justles  of  John 
(tijv  fiuQTVQiav  I.  XQiaim),  and  finally  the  Apocalypse  itself  dou  aiSs, 
(eras  they  generally  read  o(J«  re  tJ'dt).  Others  find  in  the  first  two 
expressions  only  the  Gospel  and  Epistles  taken  a$  a  whole,  and  in  the 
latter  expression  they  find  a  declaration  that  John  was  an  eye-ivitness  of 
all  which  he  had  written  ;  and  they  a{)peal  to  1  John  1:  1 — 3  for  a  de- 
claration of  similar  import.  But  in  this  last  passage  John  declares, 
that  he  discloses  not  only  what  he  had  seen,  but  also  what  he  \\i\A  heard; 
and  this  very  appropriately,  for  the  greater  part  of  his  Gospel  and  of 
his  first  Epistle,  consists  of  doctrines  which  he  had  heai'd,  or  which  had 
been  taught  him  by  Jesus  Christ.  "Oan,  side  would  seem,  then,  to  be 
altogether  too  limited  to  express  the  subject  matter  of  the  Gospel  and 
Epistles  ;  wliile  it  is  entirely  appropriate  wheu  referred  to  the  visions  of 
tlie  Apocalypse.  Liicke,  in  order  to  avoid  a  reference  to  the  Gospel 
and  Epistl(^  here,  represents  loyov  d-t-ov  and  nuQWQtav  Xqigtov  as 
merely  descriptive  of  tlie  Ajiocalypse  itself,  and  then  regards  dautlSe 
as  only  an  adjunct  explanatory  clause,  intended  to  designate  the  maimer 
in  which  the  Ajiocalypse  was  matle  known  to  its  author.  "Which  of 
these  two  parties  is  in  the  right?     Or  is  either  of  them ?     These  ques- 


8  Chap.  L  2. 

tions  must  be  answered  by  resorting,  first  of  all,  to  the  meaning  of  each 
subordinate  part  of  the  clause  before  us. 

'EfJUQTVQtjOe  has  oftentimes,  in  the  New  Testament,  its  usual  sense  of 
testifying,  i.  c.  of  bearing  witness,  of  giving  testimony  respecting  any- 
thing. This  is  ])lainly  the  natural  and  usual  import  of  the  word.  .  But  the 
corresponding  Hebrew  verb  with  its  correlative  noun,  and  ^aoTVQt'co  with 
its  correlative  noun,  not  uufrequently  convey  a  meaning  specifically  di- 
verse from  this.  Thus  the  Hebrew  T'^fn  (from  11")  signifies  he  affirm- 
ed, he  solemnly  affirmed  or  declared,  he  solemnly  enjoined,  etc  ;  and  its 
correlate  noun  fii"  means  not  only  testimony,  but  also  precept,  solemn 
declaration,  etc.  The  word  fjuQzvQeo}  is  a  favorite  one  in  the  writings 
of  John ;  e.  g.  John  3:  11,  "  o  o'lSufiev  luXoviiev,  xai  o  sojQuxa^ev  fiuQ- 
zvQovfisv,  i.  e.  what  we  know  we  speak  of,  and  what  we  have  seen  ive 
declare  ;"  for  so  the  parallelism  obhges  us  to  interpret  fiaQtvQOVfiev. 
So  3:  32,  "  What  he  has  seen  and  heard,  ToiJzo  huqzvqh,  this  he  de- 
clares or  publishes  to  the  world."  So  in  1  John  1:  2.  1  Cor.  15:  15. 
Acts  23:  11.  Jflthn  21:  24,  where  o  ftagzy^Mv  designates  the  evangelist 
'as  a  historian,  declaring  to  the  world  the  words  and  deeds  of  Jesus.  So^ 
in  Rev.  22:  16,  "I,  Jesus,  have  sent  mine  angel  ftuQzvQijout,  to  declare 
these  things  respecting  the  churches."  So  also  in  the  verse  before  us 
fjiUQZVQiav  is  plainly  a  parallelism  of  Xoyov,  which  means  declaration, 
or  what  is  spoken  or  declared ;  also  in  Rev.  1:  9.  6:  9.  12:  11  where 
■we  have  \oyov  fiaQrvQiag  avrwv,  i.  e.  the  word  or  doctrine  -which  they 
published  or  declared ;  12:  17,  where  fiuQzvQiav  parallelizes  with  iv- 
zolug  ;  20:  4. — The  plain  result  is,  that  iiAuoriiQrjae  means  declared,  pub- 
lished, openly  and  solemnly  cffirmed  or  proclaimed.  If  any  one  chooses 
still,  in  conformity  to  the  Greek  mode  of  expression  here,  to  translate 
the  word  by  testified,  there  is  no  objection  to  this  ;  for  one  of  our  best 
English  lexicographers  has  defined  testify  as  sometimes  meaning  to  de- 
clare or  publish  freely.  Usage  sanctions  such  an  explanation  of  the 
English  word. 

But  what  is  it  which  John  published  or  declared  ?  Tov  loyov  rov 
■&SOV  xal  77JV  ^laQrvQiuv  'Jijaov  Xqiotov.  Is  d'f-ov  and  Xqiotov  here  sub- 
ject or  object  ?  That  is,  does  the  author  speak  of  the  word  which  has 
respect  to  God,  and  the  testimony  which  has  respect  to  Christ  ?  Or 
does  he  mean  the  word  of  which  God  is  the  author  and  communicator, 
and  the  testimony  which  Christ  discloses  ?  Beyond  all  reasonable  doubt 
the  latter  ;  for  so  a  comparison  with  the  former  part  of  v.  1  would  plainly 
imply,  and  so  the  nature  of  the  case  seems  plainly  to  demand.  John 
testified  whatever  God  and  Christ  had  communicated  to  him  for  this 
purpose.  So  in  v.  5,  Jesus  Christ  is  accordingly  called  o  fxuQzvg  6  nia- 
Tog,  not  the  faithful  martyr,  but  the  witness  whose  declarations  are 
worthy  of  all  credit.     Liicke  (Stud,  and  Krit.  IX.  p.  654  seq.)   has 


Chap.  I.  2.  9 

strenuously  contended  that  Xiyov  and  nanrvQlav  here  arc  =  unoxd- 
ii'ii'ii",  i.  e.  the  Apocalypse.  It  is  certainly  a  possible  sense  ;  for  Xoyng 
■Oiov  =  ^'^"^  "-Z^  may  l)e  predicated  of  any  oracle,  prediction,  declara- 
tion, disclosure  of  any  kind  whatever,  whether  by  visions,  symbols,  or 
otherwise  ;  as  the  lexicons  abundantly  show,  and  as  every  attentive 
reader  of  the  Scriptures  must  have  observed.  And  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Johannean  usage  of  naQTVQiav.  So  in  Is.  8:  IG,  20,  nvrn 
parallelizes  with  ri""ri,  precept,  instruction,  somct/iinr/  tauf/Zit.  So,  in  the 
passages  cited  above,  ftanzvoia  is  for  substance  parallel  with  ).6yog  and 
with  ivToXtj.  But  it  is  manifest,  at  the  same  time,  that  loyor  &eov  and 
fKCQTvni'a  XnicjTov  are  equally  well  fitted  to  designate  what  John  had 
done,  or  was  doing,  as  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  or  as  a  writer  of  evan- 
gelical narrative.  It  is  not  then  the  nature  of  the  phraesology  here 
which  can  determine  the  question  before  us  ;  for  this  would  a[)ply  equally 
well  to  christian  preaching,  to  a  christian  writing,  or  to  the  composition 
of  the  Apocalypse  itself.  An  appeal  for  decision  must  therefore  be 
made  to  other  circumstances  than  the  nature  of  the  pliraseology. 

Such  an  appeal,  I  think,  may  be  made  with  confidence  to  Rev.  1:  9, 
where  John  says,  in  addressing  the  churches :  "  I  .  .  .  your  brother,  and 
companion  in  the  affliction  and  kingdom  and  patience  of  Jesus  Christ, 
was  in  the  isle  called  Patmos,  d(u  tor  )Mynv  tov  xhnv,  y.ui  8iu  rt^v  ftUQ- 
TVQiav  Ir^cov."  Now  he  could  not  be  thei'e  because  of  having  written 
and  published  the  Apocalypse  ;  for  this  was  written  after  he  went  there, 
possibly,  even  after  he  had  left  there.  Liicke,  in  order  to  avoid  the  dif- 
ficulty which  this  throws  in  his  way,  suggests  that  did  docs  not  mai'k 
here,  as  usual,  a  preceding  cause  or  ground  of  being  sent  to  Patmos,  but 
a  subsequent  and  ultimate  end  to  be  obtained  by  going  thither.  But 
AViner,  in  the  latest  edition  of  his  New  Testament  Grammar  (§  53.  c), 
strenuously  denies  that  such  a  meaning  can  be  given  to  bid  before  the 
Accusative  case ;  yet  Liicke  appeals  to  its  use  in  Rom.  4:  25  and  Phil. 
2:  30,  not  only  as  deciding  the  possibility  of  such  a  meaning,  but  rather 
as  decisive  of  such  an  one  in  point  of  fiict.  But  these  examples  may  be 
solved  on  a  different  ground.  At  any  rate,  since  they  are  the  only  ones 
in  the  New  Testament  to  Avhich  Liicke  ventures  to  make  an  appeal,  and 
as  they  are  against  the  usual  tenor  of  Greek  usage,  one  cannot  feel  en- 
tire confidence  in  the  appeal ;  see  Vol.  I.  p.  259  seq.  Jid  is  a  word 
•which  occurs  too  often  not  to  be  well-known  as  to  its  usual  meanings ; 
and  in  the  Apocalypse  itself  the  instances  of  it,  as  construed  with  the 
Accusative  case,  are  somewhat  numerous,  e.  g.  2:  3.  4:  IL  7:  15.  12: 
12.  13:  14.  18:  8,  10,  15;  all  with  the  usual  meaning.  In  addition  to 
these  are  several  cases  exactly  correspondent  with  the  one  in  chap.  1:9, 
wliich  admit  of  no  reasonable  controversy.  In  Rev.  6:  0,  -Tolni  si)caks 
of  souls  seen  by  him  under  the  altar  slain,  8id  tov  Xoyov  tov  d^eov  xai 

VOL.  II.  2 


10  Chap.  I.  2. 

diii  rtjv  fianrvQi'av  ijv  er/ov,  by  which  chuise  the  antecedent  and  moving 
cause  or  ground  of  their  sufferings  and  death  is  designated,  viz.  their 
perseverance  in  professing  and  declaring  tlie  Cliristian  faith  and  doc- 
trine. In  Rev.  12:  11,  of  the  victorious  host  of  the  redeemed  in  hea- 
ven it  is  said :  These  have  come  off  conquerors  dia  ro  uiiiu  tov  uqviov 
y.ai  diu  tov  h'tyov  t/}^,'  [laorvQiag  avzwv,  i.  e.  '  through,  or  by  means  of, 
the  blood  of  the  Lamb,  and  through  the  influence  of  that  word  which 
they  have  testified.'  So  again  in  Rev.  20:  4,  the  Apocalyptist  sees,  on 
thrones  in  heaven,  "  the  souls  of  those  who  had  been  beheaded  8ta  rrjv 
liaQZVQiav  'Ji;C)Ov  y.(ii  dia  rov  loyov  tov  {f^nov ;  where  the  meaning,  on 
account  of  the  testimony,  etc.,  cannot  possibly  be  mistaken.  These  in- 
stances, and  the  relatiorf  of  them  all  to  one  and  the  same  subject,  render 
diu  in  Rev.  1:  9  so  clear,  that  doubt  seems  to  be  out  of  place.  And 
this  fin-ther  objection  may  be  made  to  LiJcke's  exegesis,  viz.  that  it  re- 
presents John  as  going  to  Patmos  either  for  the  sake  of  publishing  the 
gospel  there,  or  for  the  sake  of  writing  the  Apocalypse  ;  both  of  which 
designs  are  wholly  improbable.  That  bleak  and  desolate  spot,  which  is 
scarcely  noticed  by  any  geographer  of  antirpiity,  and  never  could  have 
had  anything  but  a  few  fishermen's  huts  upon  it,  was  not  a  very  attrac-~ 
tive  place  to  go  for  the  sake  of  preaching,  compared  with  Asia  Minor 
and  the  adjacent  islands  swarming  with  a  po]iulation  which  could  hardly 
be  numbered.  And  to  go  there  _/or  the  sake  of  writing  the  Apocalyjjse  I 
It  is  surely  one  of  the  last  places  -which  an  author  could  ihink  of,  at 
least  on  the  score  of  comfort  or  convenience.  Besides  this,  John  states 
in  the  beginning  of  the  same  verse  (v.  9),  that  he  was  a  companion  of 
other  Chi'istians  tv  -OIiWei  .  .  .  ycu  vnojAOvri,  which  stands  so  connected 
with  his  being  in  Patmos,  as  to  show  that  he  was  there  iv  i>A/t|'f/,  or  as 
an  exile,  on  account  of  the  gospel.  This,  it  cannot  well  be  denied,  is 
the  plain  and  natural  implication  of  the  passage. 

From  these  considerations  taken  together  we  naturally  come  to  the 
conclusion,  that  the  clause  og  ^iiunrvQijcev  .  .  .  J.  Xqigzoij  is  epexegeti- 
cal,  descri[>tive  of  the  particular  John  just  mentioned,  and  intended  to 
distinguish  him  from  others  of  the  same  name.  We  may  also  note,  that 
inasmuch  as  Xoyov  d^sov  is  in  itself  only  a  kind  of  generic  declaration,  so 
liuQTvoi'av  I.  Xqigzov  is  here  added,  in  order  to  show  that  Christian 
doctrine  is  what  the  Avriter  particularly  intends  to  designate. 

That  John,  then,  who  had  been  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel,  that  John 
who  had  declared  and  openly  published  the  Gospel,  was  the  servant  of 
Clu'ist  to  whom  the  symbols  of  the  revelation  that  follows  were  disclosed. 
Nothing  more  can  be  drawn  with  certainty  from  the  text,  than  this  gene- 
ric sense ;  for  if  we  refer  to  Rev.  20:  4,  '•  The  souls  of  those,  who  had 
been  beheaded  ^/«  t/}*'  fiaQzvQiuv  'Itjoov,  xal  diu  70>'  Xoyov  tov  {yeov," 
surely  we  cannot  say  that  none  had  been,  beheaded  except  such  as  had 


Chap.  I.  2.  11 

written  Gospels  or  Epistles ;  nor  can  the  expression  there  be  limited 
even  to  teachers  and  preachers.  But  then  there  is  some  dilTerence  be- 
tween that  case  and  tlie  one  in  Rev.  1:2;  for  in  this  latter  we  have  the 
verb  fiictnrvQtjfin',  whidi  of  coui"se  designates  publication,  declaration, 
open  proclamation  of  the  divine  word,  and  can  be  applied  only  to  preach- 
in2.  teachiiii!:,  or  writin-j;.     But  to  which   of  these  the  writer  means  to 

c?  c  o 

apply  it,  cannot  be  determined  by  anything  that  he  here  says.  Of  the 
fact,  however,  that  John  wrote  the  Apocalypse  before  he  wrote  his 
Gospel,  (in  case  he  was  the  author  of  botli),  there  can  now,  I  think,  be 
no  reasonable  ground  of  doubt.  Erangelinni  postea  scripsit,  says  Vic- 
torinus  (f  3(>2)  in  the  earliest  Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  that  we 
have,  i.  e.  fifter  his  residence  at  "Patmos,  as  (tm  context  shows ;  Bib. 
J\Iax.  Patrum,  III.  p.  418,  C.  And  although  the  little  book  of  Victo- 
rinus  comes  to  us  probably  in  a  somewhat  mutilated  and  garbled  state, 
yet  the  expression  quoted  seems  in  all  probability  to  be  a  part  of  the 
genuine  work.  At  all  events,  it  agrees  well  with  what  the  laws  of  criti- 
cism would  sefem  to  decide  or  to  require. 

Putting  all  tliese  eonsideratioris  together  it  appears  to  be  sufliciently 
plain,  that  eJohn  is  here  described  as  a  teacher  or  preacher^  of  the  divine 
word,  and  of  that  word  as  disclosed  by  the  Gospel  =  the  testimony  of 
Jesus  Christ,  But  whether  it  was  the  apostle  John — the  same  who  was 
the  author  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Epistles — seems  not  to  be  decided  by 
the  declarations  under  consideration.  There  is,  indeed,  nothing  in  them 
which  contradicts  this,  or  is  incongruous  with  it ;  but  still,  it  must  be 
confessed,  thei^  is  nothing  which  decides  with  certainty  in  favour  of  it. 
If  now  the  Gospel  and  Epistles  were  subsequent  works,  (of  which  I  can- 
not doubt),  how  could  they  be  referred  to  in  this  passage  as  being  al- 
ready extant  ? 

"Oau  f?5f,  and  not  ooa  ze  ii8e  as  the  VuJgate  text  reads,  and  as  many 
critics  have  also  read.  For  their  purpose  this  was  a  convenient  read- 
ing; for  some  of  them  made  three  distinct  declarations  of  this  and  the 
two  preceding  clauses ;  viz.  first,  John  wrote  the  Gospel ;  secondly,  he 
wrote  the  Epistles ;  and  thirdly,  he  wTOte  the  Apocalypse,  which  last, 
they  say,  is  here  appropriately  described  as  containing  ocra  f-ldt,  i.  e.  th©" 
visions  and  symbols  disclosed  to  John.  But  tlie  7f,  on  which  this  dis- 
tinction is  maiidy  built,  wjis  long  ago  rejected  even  by  Bengel ;  and 
since  that  time,  by  all  the  critical  editions.  The  Mss.  leave  us  no  good 
room  to  doubt  as  to  the  reading  oaa  eWe;  for  A.  B.  G.  7.  8.  9.  12.  14. 
23.  20.  30.  32.  33.  42,  all  the  Mss.  of  Matthaei,  one  of  Alter,  six  of 
Birch,  and  the  Vulgate,  Syriac,  Arabic  (Erp.),  Coptic,  Aetliiopic,  and 
Armenian  versions  all  omit  it.  Ewald  contends  for  t«  ;  but  it  is  because 
he  construes  the  preceding  declarations  as  amounting  merely  to  an  as- 


13  Chap.  I.  2. 

sertion,  that  John  was  a  public  and  open  professor  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, and  then  oait  zs  tide  means,  that  [he  declared^  whatever  he  saiv, 
i.  e.  what  he  had  been  an  eye-witness  of.  This  is  a  forced  construction, 
to  say  the  least ;  and  inasmuch  as  the  whole  book  of  the  Apocalypse  no- 
where else  offers  us  a  single  re,  with  any  good  evidence  of  its  genuine- 
ness, (t£  in  Rev.  21:  12  is  generally  rejected),  so  it  would  be  acting 
against  the  laws  of  evidence  and  of  internal  probabihty  to  admit  it  here. 
I  have  joined  oou  elde  with  i6i]iiave  as  object ;  but  if  the  reader  pre- 
fers to  make  it  merely  an  explanatory  clause,  in  apposition  with  loyov 
'&aov  and  [laQzvQi'av  I.  Xfjiazov,  then  the  whole  clause  will  designate 
John  as  testifying  the  divine  word,  even  the  gospel  of  Christ,  in  all  the 
extent  to  which  it  was  disclosed  to  him.  In  this  case  eJdnv  would  pa- 
rallelize exactly  with  the  Hebrew  tiin,  when  applied  to  a  prophet  (the 
old  designation  of  whom  was  fith,  a  seer),  which  nm  stands  connected 
at  times  with  'I'z'i ,  e.  g.  Is.  2:  1  ;  so  that  "li'i  njn ,  and  tide  Xoyov  ■&eov 
would  be  exactly  parallel  expressions.  The  possibility  of  this  con- 
struction I  would  not  be  understood  to  deny.  But  the  other  one  which 
I  have  given,  inasmuch  as  it  assigns  a  definite  object  to  iai'niave,  and 
therefore  makes  the  whole  sense  of  the  passage  run  smoothly  and  con- 
gruously, I  must  prefer. 

One  remark  more  should  be  added  in  reference  to  the  Aor.  ^laQrv- 
QTjae.  Why  does  John  here  employ  this  indefinite  Praeterite,  if  by  X6' 
yov  {^eov  and  fiuQivQiav  I.  Xqigtov  he  means  to  designate  the  book  it- 
self of  the  Apocalypse,  or  at  any  rate  the  revelation  contained  in  it  which 
was  yet  to  be  written  ?  LiJcke,  who  supposes  this  to  be  the  case  (Stud, 
und  Krit.  IX.  p.  658),  accounts  for  it  by  saying,  that  to  the  uvayivdoa- 
Hmv  and  the  uxovovzeg  (v.  3),  the  act  of  writing  the  book  was  past,  and 
so  John  could  employ  ^laQrvQijoe.  Yet  the  writer  of  John's  Gospel, 
even  after  he  had  completed  his  whole  work,  speaking  of  himself  in  the 
last  clause  of  it  as  having  performed  this  labour,  calls  himself  6  huqzvqwv 
he  who  testifies,  thus  using  the  present  tense.  So,  plainly,  would  the 
•writer  have  done  in  Rev.  1:  2,  had  he  referred  there  to  the  written 
Apocalypse  which  follows  in  the  sequel ;  for  how  could  he  say,  in  the 
'Very  outset  of  the  work,  that  he  had  written  it?  Even  if  we  suppose 
the  preface  to  have  been  last  written  (as  is  usually  the  case),  yet  it  must 
not  wear  that  appearance  when  written ;  otherwise  it  would  be  no  pre- 
face to  the  book.  Besides  this,  John  himself,  neai-  the  close  of  this  very 
book,  speaks  of  himself  as  '  o  a-/.ovbiv  y.ai  pJncxiv  the  things  contained 
in  it,'  22:  8.  It  would  be  unnatural,  therefore,  for  the  writer  to  employ 
the  Aorist  in  v.  2,  in  case  his  meaning  were  such  a  one  as  Lucke  ad- 
vocates. But  the  Aorist,  in  i-eference  to  his  past  preaching  and  teach- 
ing, is  quite  in  its  proper  place  here  ;  for  that  the  Aorist  frequently  de- 


Chap.  I.  3.  18 

signates  actions  in  the  past  time  that  were  accustomed  to  he  done,  or  were 
often  repeated,  is  now  acknowledged  by  jvll  leading  grammarians,  and  ia 
indeed  easily  established  by  reference  to  frequent  usage.* 

(•\)  Blessed  is  lio  who  roadotl>,  nnd  tlipy  who  hoar,  the  words  of  this  prophecy, 
and  keep  in  mind    the  things  written  therein,  for  the  time  is  near. 

The  manner  of  the  declaration  will  at  once  be  understood  by  advert- 
ing simply  to  the  custom  in  ancient  times,  when  very  few  private  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  existed,  of  reading  them  in  public,  and  thus  making 
them  known  to  the  mass  of  the  people.  'Yivayivdoay.byv  here  refers  tt)  a 
])nblic  reader ;  o\  (ly.ovovTeg  to  those  who  listened  to  him,  i.  e.  to  the  mass 
of  the  people.  Sentiment:  *  Happy  ai'c  all  who  possess  a  knowledge  of 
■what  is  revealed  in  this  prophetical  book  !'  yioyovg,  the  things  said. 
T),g  7tQorfi,t(i(('s,  of  t/iis  propheey,  where  tz/s,'  is  emphatic,  and  therefore 
equivalent  to  our  demonstrative  this;  and  Trnoq^ijZfiug  \s  the  same  as 
(i7Tox(().v\l<iv  above,  for  rr,g  has  an  evident  reference  to  it.  It  is  also 
equivalent  to  oaa  elds. 

Ti^nnvrTf^,  keeping  in  inind,  i.  e.  remembering  and  pondering  upon. 
So  the  Hebrew  "i":r,  which  is  often  rendered  diaztQt'co  by  the  Septua- 
gint,  c.  g.  in  Gen.  17:  9.  37:  11.  Num.  28:  2  ah  See  Ges.  Lex.  No.  2. 
It  is  also  true,  that  rz/^tw  may  mean  keep  in  the  sense  of  observing  and 
obeying,  for  such  is  the  case  with  "ir'i ;  but  this  sense  is  not  altogether 
apposite  here,  inasmuch  as  the  Tinocpr^reia  before  us  consists  mainly  of 
predictions  and  not  of  precepts. 

'0  yun  y.atQog  iyyvg,forthetime/i.  e.  the  appropriate  and  ordained  pe- 

*  Winer  (Gramm.  §  41,5.  b.  1,  4th  ed.)  seems  to  deny  such  a  sense  of  the  Ac- 
rist  in  the  New  Testament,  viz.  that  of  marking  customarij  or  often  repealed  action 
in  the  past  time,  and  manifests  an  inclination  to  limit  the  Aorist  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament to  marking  only  brief,  temporary,  and  soon  completed  action.  But  we 
may  open  the  New  Testament  almost  anywhere,  and  find  reason  to  call  such  an 
opinion  in  question  ;  e.  g.  John  4:  12,  i'mE,  i.  e.  .Jacob  hubilualhj  drunfc  and  so  his 
children,  and  his  flocks ;  4:  20,  "  Our  fatiiers  TTQoaenvvriaar ,  loere  accvstomed  to 
icorsltip,  or  hubiluallij  icorslttjiped  \n  ihts  mountain,  etc.;"  5:29,  oi  TTOirjoavTifj 
they  who  hare  persevered  in  doing  good ;  ib.  oi  Ss  r«  (f.aii?.a  TTQa^avTtg,  they  who 
hare  persevered  in  doing  eril ;  G:  3),  tSojy.aVj  often  and  fur  a  long  time  he  gave 
them  bread  ;  and  so  in  many  cases.  Rost  (Gramm.  §  166.  Anm.  4)  very  forcibly 
illustrates  this  from  the  classics:  "Most  critics  enjoin  upon  the  citizens  not  to 
steal,  etc.  .  .  but  if  any  one  transgress,  iTrt&saav,  they  ii-ere  accustovird  to  inflict  a 
penalty  upon  him  ;'  "  Socrates  iSu^a^f^  icns  accustomed  to  leach  his  disciples  with- 
out any  reward;"  "The  Persians  f7roA/(a);a«J',  vsually  made  war  with  readiness 
and  boldness  ;"  "  Many  things  iVfOf,  Aacc  o/ilen  happened  to  men  beyond  their 
expectation."  Indeed  this  principle  is  generally  recognized  by  all  distinguished 
grammarians  at  the  present  time  ;  see  Kohner,  Gramm.  II.  §  442.  And  such  be- 
ing the  case,  ffutfjrvffjjaiv,  in  Rev.  1:  2  is  altogether  in  place,  as  designating  the 
past  habitude  of  John  in  publishing  or  teaching  the  Gospel. 


14  Chap.  I.  4. 

riod,  n3?iT2,  is  near  at  hand.     In  Avhat  sense  this  is  to  be  understood,  has 
ah-eady  been  discussed  under  iv  ia'fs.i  of  v.  1. 


SALUTATION  AND  INTRODUCTION.  I.  3—20. 

To  the  seven  churches  of  piocoiisular  Asia  is  the  work  which  the  writer  has 
undertaken  inscribed.  The  iiames  of  these  (1:  ll)Js  a  pledge  for  the  importance 
of  tlie  churches  addressed.  Whether  the  cliurches  of  that  day  in  Asia  were  limi- 
ted-to  this  number,  is  a  question  easily  solved;  for  in  Col.  4:  13  the  church  at  Hi- 
erapolis  is  mentioned  in  connection  wltli  that  at  Laodicea,  and  the  former  is  in  the 
near  neighbourhood  of  the  latter.  Colossae,  also,  was  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  Laodicea.  All  three  were  on  the  confines  of  Phrygia  and  Lydia,  and  be- 
longed, no  doubt,  to  the  circle  of  proconsular  Asia.  So,  a  few  years  later  than 
when  the  Apocalypse  was  written,  we  know  there  were  large  and  flourishing 
churches  in  Tralles  where  Ignatius  lived,  and  at  Magnesia  in  its  near  neighbour- 
hood, both  in  Lydia  and  but  a  moderate  distance  from  Ephesus.  Whether  the 
Apocalyptist  was  conversant  with  these,  and  with  many  other  churches  of  Asia 
besides  those  mentioned  in  the  Revelation,  cannot  be  decided  by  express  evidence  ; 
but  the  probability  surely  is,  that  such  a  man  as  John,  (whether  apostle  or  other 
preacher  of  the  gospel),  would  not  have  founded,  or  formed  acquaintance'vrrth, 
seven  churches  only  in  Asia,  wlien  the  whole  region  was  filled  with  cities  and  an 
immense  population.  There  must  be  other  reasons,  then,  why  on]y  skvcn  church- 
es are  here  addressed  ;  and  these  will  be  the  subject  of  discussion  in  the  sequel 
when  we  come  to  v.  IL 

Asia  is  a  name  to  which  very  different  meanings  are  attached,  by  different 
writers  and  at  different  periods  of  time.  It  means,  (1)  The  whole  eastern  Con- 
tinent. (2)  Hither  Asia  or  Asia  Minor,  from  the  Sinus  Issiciis  and  Armenia  Mi- 
nor to  the  Aegean  Sea.  (3)  That  part  of  Asia  which  Attalus  III  ,  king  of  Perga- 
mus,  gave  by  testament  to  the  Romans,  i.  e.  Mysia,  Phrygia,  Lycaonia,  Lydia, 
Caria,  Pisidia,  and  the  southern  coast,  i.  e.  all  the  western,  south-western,  and 
southern  parts  of  Asia  Minor.  (4)  In  the  New  Testament,  the  western  coast 
from  Mysia  downwards,  with  the  inland  country  to  a  considerable  distance  back, 
comprehending  the  western  part  of  Phrygia,  appears  to  be  named  Jisia  ;  and  this 
tract  constituted  procimsula?-  Jisia,  in  the  narrow  meaning  of  that  appellation. 
The  last  is  possibly  the  meaning  in  the  text.  See  Usher,  Diatribe  Da  Asia  Pro- 
consul  ari. 

To  the  churches  addressed,  John  gives  the  usual  Christian  salutation 
so  comiuon  in  the  epistles  of  Paul,  and  elsewhere  : 

(4)  John,  to  the  seven  churches  which  aie  in  Asia  :  Grace  be  unto  you,  and 
peace,  from  Him  who  is,  and  was,  and  is  to  come. 

Xagis,  favour,  benevolence  or  benejlcence,  viz.  on  the  part  of  God, 
who  bestows  blessings.  The  sense  is  optative  or  precative.  Then  tl- 
Qr^vti  =  mbc,  i.  e.  peaceful  security/  and  enjoyment,  tranquil  happiness  ; 
and  both  of  these  in  the  full  sense,  (for  such  doubtless  was  the  writer's 
mind),  that  is,  in  a  sense  which  respects  things  temporal  and  spiritual. 
Only  this  enlarged  meaning  can  answer  the  demands  of  the  passage. 


Chap.  I.  4.  15 

u-lno  (»  Mv  y.ai  o  ijv  xui  n  f())^oittvO';.  In  the  vulgatc  text  roi;  is  in- 
serted af'tvi- <cto  ;  but  it  is  su|»i)oi1e{l  by  no  juleqnate  autliority,  find  is 
evidently  a  gloss  of  some  coypist,  who  sought  lor  a  palpable  index  of 
the  Genitive  case  after  the  preposition  Iktto.  The  peculiar  construction 
of  the  whole  clause  is  manifest  at  first  sight.  The  words  following 
(lm'>  are  all  taken  together  as  one  indeclinable  noun,  corresponding  to 
and  expressive  of  the  Hebrew  word  nin^  ,  Jehovah,  which  is  indeclina- 
ble, i.  e.  aduiils  of  no  variation  of  form.  AVhatever  may  have  been  the 
origin  of  this  Hebrew  appellation,  i.  e.  whether  it  be  purely  of  Hebrew 
etymology,  or,  as  some  have  maintained,  a  foreign  word  expressive  of 
suiM'enie  Godhead,  and  adoi)te(l  by  the  Hebrews  (with  some  slight  va- 
riation which  conforms  it  to  the.  genius  of  their  language),  still  it  is  cer- 
tain, that  at  a  very  early  jieriod  nin^  was  considered  as  expressive 
of  the  God  ivhlch  exists  always,  and  was  regarded  as  connected  with  the 
verb  n'^r\  or  n'n,  to  he.  vSo  in  Ex.  3:  14  ;  Moses  had  inquired  (v.  13) 
'by  what  name  he  should  announce  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  to  his  na- 
tion,' and  he  is  answered  :  "  n>nx  "irx  n;;nx,  I  am  that  I  am  .  . .  tell 
them  that  iT;nx  has  sent  you  to  them."  Here,  as  Jehovah  himself 
speaks,  he  employs  t\\Q  first  person  of  the  future  tense  of  ii"ri  instead  of 
the  third,  which  would  be  n;;r!'i  or  (from  fT^n  =  ti^fi )  trin^ .  The  man- 
ner of  this  address  seems  therefore  to  take  it  for  granted,  that  ir^n  or 
n^n  is  the  root  of  the  word  ninii .  Theodoret  (Quaest.  15  in  Ex.)  tes- 
tifies that  the  Samaritans  pronounced  the  name  tiin^  as  JylBE,  i.  e.  ti,^t)l 
yahve,  (B  being  soft,  as  he  read  it,  like  our  English  V)  ;  while  he  says 
(ibid.)  that  the  Hebrews  called  it  Jy:fii  (Tao).  How  he  came  by  such 
a  knowledge  of  the  ovojia  drExqcortjTov,  uofoaarov,  unonntjTov,  as  he 
himself  and  Eusebius  call  it,  it  would  be  ditricult  to  say ;  but  he  speaks 
confidently,  and  would  seem  to  know  what  he  affirms.  But  let  the  pro- 
nunciation be  as  it  may,  the  word  ti'.n'j  is  indeclinahle ;  and  John  has 
imitated  this,  in  the  expression  before  us.  0  oiv,  is  he  who  now  exists  ; 
6  ?;»',  is  he  who  has  existed,  the  verb  itself  (in  the  Praeterite)  being  here 
employed,  because  there  is  no  form  of  a  partici[)le  praeterite  which 
could  be  joined  with  the  article ;  while  o  f()-/^6{ieroi;  =  xsn ,  means  rjui 
futurus  est,  he  who  is  to  come  or  is  to  be.  The  Greek  verb  £//it  affords 
indeed  a  future  participle,  viz.  iao^svog ;  but  then  the  Hebi'ew  verb 
T^'^ri  has  properly  none  such,  and  therefore  xsn  is  used  in  the  place  of  it, 
which  our  text  imitates.  So,  often  in  the  New  Testament,  where  we 
find,  in  order  to  signify  that  which  is  future  or  that  ichich  will  he,  the 
word  come  (t^rj^nixai)  employed  ;  e.  g.  days  to  come,  world  to  come,  king- 
dom of  God  to  come,  good  and  evil  to  come,  wrath  to  come,  etc.  etc. 

John  then  wishes  that  giace  and  peace  from  Jehovah,  i.  e.  tlie  self-ex- 
istent and  eternal  God,  may  be  given  to  the  churches  whom  lie  addresses. 
Evidently  his  periphrastic  designation  of  the  word  Jehovah  implies  thus 


16  Chap.  I.  4. 

much ;  nor  can  there  be  any  good  reason  to  doubt,  that  in  the  time 
when  the  Apocalypse  was  written,  it  was  customary  among  the  Jews  to 
regard  such  a  meaning  as  connected  with  the  word  njiri .  Early  Jew- 
ish writings  confirm  this  view.  Thus  Targ.  Jon.  on  Deut.  32:  39,  Ego 
ille  qui  est,  et  qui  fuit,  et  qui  erit .  .  .  Annon  pater  unus  ?  Et  ipse 
fuit,  et  ipse  est,  et  ipse  erit.  Targ.  Hieros.  in  Ex.  3:  14,  Qui  fuit,  est, 
et  erit,  dixit  mundo.  More  of  the  same  nature  from  the  later  Rabbins 
may  be  found  in  Schoettgenii  Hor.  Heb.  in  loc.  Even  among  the  hea- 
then we  find  some  striking  descriptions  of  the  Godhead,  which  are  of 
a  similar  nature.  Plutarch  (De  Is.  et  Osir.  p.  354),  speaking  of  a 
temple  of  Isis  at  Sais  in  Egypt,  says  :  "  It  bore  this  inscription  :  'Eya 
£i[xi  ndv  to  yeyovog,  aai  ov,  •aoi  ioof/tvov  •  nai  rov  ifiov  ninXov  ovdet'i;  nco 
'&vijTav  (iTTEAcilvxliev.  So  Orpheus  (in  auctor.  Lib.  de  Mundo)  :  Zevg 
y.Ecp(i).>'j,  Zavg  fit'aau,  /liog  d'  In  ndvia  ■zs'tvatui.  Moi'e  striking  still  is 
the  resemblance  in  Pausanias  (Phocic.  12)  :  Zevg  ijv,  Ztvq  mii,  Zeiig 
eaaezai,  w  fi^'yale  Zev  ! 

Striking  as  this  is,  however,  we  are  not  obliged  to  suppose,  that  the  Hebrews 
borrowed  the  name  Jehovah  from  the  heathen,  nor  their  modes  of  reasoning  in  re- 
gard to  its  significance.  The  thought  is  natural  to  a  reflecting  mind,  that  an 
eternal  Being  must  have  existed  in  time  past,  tiiat  he  now  exists,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  exist.  No  wonder  then  that  r,h~^  ,  dcr  Seycnde  (as  the  Germans  say),  i.  e. 
the  Blister  (if  I  may  so  express  it),  was  used  as  a  most  significant  name  of  the 
eternal  and  self-existent  God.  That  the  Hebrews  sometimes  formed  proper 
names  from  the  future  tense  of  a  verb,  is  well  known;  and  in  the  present  case, 
if  —  "ir;'  ,  as  Ewald  and  Hitzig  confidently  suppose,  was  the  true  pronunciation  of 
the  word,  all  is  plain;  for  this  form  is  a  Hiph.  Future,  and  means  He  who  causes 
existence.  That  the  vowels  which  are  connected  with  this  name  at  present,  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  are  not  the  original  and  proper  ones,  seems  to  be  quite 
certain  ;  for  tlie  present  vowels  aie  always  the  appropriate  ones  to  ";'i"ts  or  C'rVx ; 
and  in  one  of  these  ways,  that  is  by  using  one  of  these  appellations,  the  Jews 
always  read  or  pronounce  the  name  rrin"'.  From  time  immemorial  they  have 
done  so;  for  the  Septaagint  version  almost  always  renders  m-"»  by  XvQcoe  =^'l^'!{i, 
and  Philo,  Josenhus,  Thcodoret,  and  Eusebius,  with  the  Rabbins,  all  bear  testimo- 
ny that  the  true  sound  of  the  name  was  never  uttered,  except  in  the  temple; 
Bib.  Repos.  I.  p.  739.  This  gives  us  a  ground  why  John  has  adopted  the  peri- 
phrasis in  Rev.  1:  4.  The  direct  namemr"'  he  did  not  choose  to  pronounce,  even 
if  he  had  ever  heard  it.  He  was  unwilling  thus  to  shock  the  feelings  of  his  Jew- 
ish readers.  Tiie  name  y.vQiog  he  did  not  select,  in  this  case,  because  it  fell  below 
the  significancy  which  he  wished  to  exhibit.  Consequently  he  employed  a  peri- 
phrasis for  !-;■-',  that  was  common  among  his  readers,  and  would  be  perfectly 
understood  by  them. 

The  reader  who  wishes  to  see  properly  exposed  the  attempts  of  several  recent 
writers,  to  show  that  the  name  niTT;  was  borrowed  by  the  Hebrews  from  some  of 
the  heathen  nations,  is  referred  to  an  Essay  of  Tholuck  on  this  subject,  translated 
and  printed  in  the  Bib.  Repos.  IV.  p.  89  seq. ;  where  the  author  has  not  only 
made  out  his  own  position  in  a  triumphant  manner,  but  reduced  his  opponents  to 
straits  which  will  alternately  excite  the  indignation  and  perhaps  the  contempt  of 
some  readers.     That  the  Hebrews  might  coin  such  an  expressive  name  as  Jeliovah, 


•  Chap.  I.  5.  17 

i3  sufficiently  evident  from  the  fact,  thrit  oflier  nations  have  done  thintrs  of  tlie  like 
nature  ;  e.  or.  the  Zend  languatre  calls  God  ICuaildtti,  i.  e.  a  se  datus,  or  self-exis- 
ti'nl;  and  the  Sanscrit  e'.iiploys  Scdijumdala,  i.  e.  the  oriijiiiator  of  his  own  exis- 
tence. Did  the  Hebrews  know  less  of  God  Uian  the  old  Parsces,  or  the  authors 
of  the  antiquated  Sanscrit? 

(5)  And  from  the  seven  spirits  which  are  before  his  throne;  and  from  Jesus 
Christ,  the  faithful  witness,  the  first-born  of  the  dead,  and  the  ruler  of  the  kings 
of  the  earth ;  —  tQ  him  who  loved  us,  and  washed  us  from  our  sins  in  his  blood. 

Kca  lino  tmv  tnra  TTvavitdTiov  .  .  .  i>()Oj'oi'  avTov.  Three  opinions 
respecting  this  passage  deserve  consideration  ;  (1)  It  means  God,  a 
most  perfect  Spirit.  (2)  It  means  the  Ifoly  Spirit,  endowed  with  a 
most  perfect  natin'e.  (3)  It  means  the  sevoi  archangels,  or  presence- 
angels,  who  stand  near  the  throne  of  God,  and  are  (so  to  speak)  prime 
ministers  in  the  execution  of  his  will. 

(1)  God.  Eichhorn  paraphrases  the  verse  thus  :  "A  Jehova,  natura 
perfectissima."  His  basis  of  argument  is,  that  '  God  is  called  nvsi\ua ; 
and  then,  in  reference  to  the  various  and  different  powers  or  influences 
whicli  he  exerts,  he  is  "  sine  uUo  discrimiue"  called  m'EVfiata  ;  Coram, 
p.  16  seq.  As  to  the  first  affirmation,  it  is  true  that  God  is  called  Tirev- 
fiu,  John  4:  24 ;  but  this  is  only  in  reference  to  his  pneumatic  or  imma- 
terial nature.  The  Spirit  of  God,  as  the  third  person  in  the  Trinity, 
does  not  here  come  into  consideration  ;  inasmuch  as  Eichhorn's  position 
is  a  generic,  and  not  a  specific  one. — As  to  the  other  position,  that  '  God 
is  called  nrnniurcf.  sine  ullo  discnmine,'  1  know  of  no  passage  in  the 
Bible  to  justify  such  an  assertion. 

His  second  ground  of  proof  is,  that  'the  Jews  so  construed  Is.  11:  2 
as  to  make  seven  spirits  out  of  it,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  divine  na- 
ture.' But  there  the  spirits  mentioned  are  expressly  affirmed  to  belong 
to  the  Messiah.  Whence  the  proof  is  to  come,  that  the  Jews  formed 
out  of  this  passage  the  notion  that  God  consists  of  seven  spirits,  I  know 
not.  I  have  searched  in  vain  for  it.  The  oldest  evidence  of  the  Cab- 
balistic interpretation  of  the  Jews,  is  generally  admitted  to  be  the  Zo- 
har;  certainly  Cabbalism  rests  mainly  on  this  work.  Whether  this 
work  is  in  fact  as  old  as  the  Mishna,  as  some  have  supposed,  or  even 
older,  must  be  regarded  as  very  doubtful,  when  any  one  reads  the  Mish- 
na and  finds  it  so  full  of  superstitions  and  hair-splitting  conceits,  and 
yet  partaking  little  or  nothing  of  the  spirit  of  Cabbalism.  As  the  Zohar 
noio  is,  there  are  parts  of  it,  beyond  all  question,  of  modern  date  ;  see 
Nordheirner  in  Bib.  Repos.  of  1839.  No.  IV.  p.  14  (for  272).  But 
conceding  the  antiquity  of  the  great  mass  of  it,  we  shall  still  look  to  it 
in  vain  for  the  doctrine  which  Eichhorn  asserts.  Schoettgen,  deeply 
versed  in  literature  of  this  kind  and  not  a  mere  gleaner  like  Eichhorn, 
in  his  Horae  Heb.  (H.  p.  262),  has  produced  four  different  passages 

VOL.  II.  8 


18  Chap.  I.  5. 

from  the  Zohar,  all  of  which  assert,  that  four  s])irits  belong  to  the  MeS' 
siah  (not  to  God),  founding  this  opinion  on  Is.  11:  2,  where  the  word 
Ji^"! ,  spirit,  occurs  only  four  times.  Again,  a  solitaiy  passage  he  pro- 
duces from  the  same  wofk,  which  ascribes  seveyi  spirits  to  the  Messiah. 

But  how  all  this  can  prove  that  the  Jews  of  John's  time  were  accus- 
tomed to  ascribe  seven  spirits  to  God,  one  cannot  well  see.  Beyond  all 
reasonable  question,  the  Zohar  and  all  the  Cabbalistic  books  are  much 
later  than  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  there  is  cei'tainly  no  evidence  in  this 
latter  book  of  speculations  resembling  those  of  the  Cabbalists.  There 
is  nothing  which  at  first  view  seems  apparently  to  be  of  this  nature,  that 
cannot  be  accounted  for  on  a  different  ground.  And  of  the  same  opin- 
ion is  Ewald,  Comm.  p.  90. 

Should  the  appeal  be  made  here  (as  it  has  often  been),  to  the  Cab- 
balistic doctrine  of  the  Sephiroth  (m'l'^Sp),  i.  e.  the  personification  of 
the  divine  attributes,  this  will  answer  no  purpose  on  the  present  occa- 
sion ;  for  the  Sephiroth  were  not  seven  but  ten  ;  all  of  which  stand  on 
the  ground  of  equality  in  respect  to  ranh,  although  not  exactly  so  as  to 
order.  The  fiction  of  the  Sephiroth  is  briefly  this.  To  the  divine  Be- 
ing, simply  considered,  the  generic  appellation  Cjio  I'^it ,  without  end,  i.  e. 
the  Infinite  One,  is  given.  Then  to  him  are  ascribed  parts  or  attributes, 
which  are  arranged  so  as  to  make  out  a  kind  of  figure  or  form  like  to 
that  of  a  man.  First  comes  "ir3 ,  crown,  representing  the  head  ;  then 
ln723n  wisdom  and  n3">3  intelligence,  the  two  eyes ;  then  nbilj  great- 
ness and  iTn^na  might,  i.  e.  the  shoulders  and  arms ;  then  rnxsri  or- 
nament, girdle  magnificently  adorned ;  then  nua  splendour  and  lin 
majesty,  i.  e.  the  loins  bedecked  with  glittering  weapons ;  then  l^'O'} 
foundation,  i.  e.  feet,  and  n^isb'^  kingdom,  which  is  the  footstool,  i.  e. 
under  his  feet  or  subject  to  him.  Such  are  the  Sephiroth ;  but  that  all 
this  is  entirely  remote  from  the  passage  vmder  consideration,  is  plain 
enough.  Compare  Note  in  Dr.  Laurence's  Book  of  Enoch,  p.  44, 
edit.  2. 

By  what  then  are  we  to  be  persuaded,  that  John  meant  to  describe 
the  Godhead  here,  when  he  employed  the  phrase  seven  angels  before 
his  throne  1  The  very  nature  of  the  case  decides  against  such  a  sup- 
position ;  for  how  would  the  text  then  run  ?  In  substance  thus  :  Grace 
and  peace  .  .  .from  God,  and  from  God.  I  will  not  say  that  repetition 
of  a  nature  somewhat  similar  to  this  never  occurs ;  but  I  would  say, 
that  I  know  of  no  instance  hke  to  this  in  all  the  salutations  of  the  New 
Testament.  It  would  be  incongruous.  But  if  this  is  not  enough,  then 
we  may  at  least  be  permitted  to  ask  one  question  more :  What  means 
the  adjunct  clause — which  are  before  his  throne  ?  Are  God's  attributes, 
then,  not  in  himself,  but  standing  before  his  throne  ?  If  there  is  any- 
thing in  all  the  Zohar  that  exceeds  the  incongruity  of  such  a  supposi- 


Cn.vr.  I.  5.  19 

tion,  let  it  be  produced.  And  this  iidjunct  clauj^e  seems  to  make  a  final 
decision  of  this  question.  The  sei'm  sjnrifs  arc  at  least  something  di- 
verse  tropi  n  mv  y.(u  o  r^r  y.ui  n  fnyoj(H>ng. 

It  is  a  matter  of  some  surjirise,  therefore,  to  find  a  writer  so  sharp- 
sighted  and  independent  of  masters  as  Ewald,  leaning  here,  as  he  docs, 
to  the  views  of  P^ichhorn.  IMore  still,  to  find  him  laying  down  the  like 
positions  about  the  early  views  of  the  Jews,  in  regard  to  God  as  a 
Spirifiis  srpfiformis,  (to  which  Liickc  also  assents  Einl.  p.  38G),  with- 
out a  single  appeal  to  testimony  in  order  to  establish  it ;  excepting  that 
lie  refers  us  to  the  seven  eyes  of  Jehovah  which  run  to  and  fro  through 
the  whole  earth,  Zech.  3:  9.  4:  10.  But  this  is  entirely  of  a  different 
nature ;  the  seven  eyes  are  obviously  a  designation  of  the  navn\iHa  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  running  to  and  fro  through  the  whole  earth  designates 
his  universal  inspection.  So  in  the  Apocalypse  (5:  6),  the  Lamb  has 
seven  eyes  and  seven  horns,  emblematic  "of  the  seven  spirits  of  God 
which  he  sends  forth  into  all  the  earth  ;  which  representation,  although 
it  has  for  its  ba.<is  the  passage  in  Zechariah,  is  still  employed  in  a  man- 
ner specifically  different.  So  also  the  heast  has  seven  heads.  Rev.  13:  1 ; 
and  in  a  like  way  seven  is  employed  often  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  (I 
may  add)  throughout  the  Scriptures.  But  in  all  these  cases  the  seven 
eyes,  or  heads,  or  horns,  belong  to  the  individual  being  who  is  named  in 
connection  with  them ;  they  do  not  stand  before  his  throne.  More  to 
Ewald's  purpose  would  have  been  an  appeal  to  Prov.  8:  30,  where 
eternal  Wisdom  is  personified,  and  represented  as  '"V:ss ,  near  to  him, 
i.  e.  to  Jehovah,  and  always  rejoicing  before  him.  But  here,  again, 
simply  participation  and  aid  in  the  counsels  and  doings  of  Jehovah  are 
designated  by  the  phraseology  in  question.  Less  than  what  is  said 
could  not  be  said,  if  the  personification  is  to  be  carried  through.  In  the 
case  before  us,  if  the  writer  had  meant  to  designate  Jehovah  as  pos- 
sessing seven  spirits,  i.  e.  attributes,  it  is  obvious  he  would  have  said, 
even  from  Him  who  hath  the  seven  spirits,  i.  e.  possesses  all  perfect 
spiritual  attributes ;  in  which  case,  too,  the  dno  must  have  been  left 
out,  for  this  discriminates  and  marks  separate  objects.  We  may  dis- 
miss this  exegesis  then  with  the  conviction,  that  it  is  incongruous  and 
altogether  unsupported. 

(2)  The  Holt  Spirit.  This  interpretation  is  defended  by  Vitringa 
and  many  others.  It  has  at  least  a  better  claim  than  the  j)receding 
one,  inasmuch  as  it  would  free  the  passage  from  tautology,  and  would 
signify  that  all  the  persons  of  the  Godhead  are  addressed  in  the  pious 
supjilication  or  desire  of  the  writer;  and  thus  it  would  fully  harmonize 
with  2  Cor.  13:  14.  To  confirm  this  view  Vitringa  appeals  to  Rev.  4: 
5,  where  the  seven  spirits  of  God  are  said  to  be  seven  lamps  biirninr/  be- 
fore his  tlirone.     '  These,'  says  he  (Comm.  p.  15),  'must  be  something 


0 


20  Chap.  I.  5. 

in  Deo  not  extra  Deum,  for  they  are  that  which  enables  him  to  see.' 
Hence  he  concludes,  that  they  must  be  the  Spirit  of  God;  and  by 
analogy  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  seven  spirits  in  Rev.  1:  5. 
But  in  regard  to  the  seven  lamps,  they  are  said  to  be  burning  before  the 
throne  of  God,  not  within  him ;  directly  contrary  to  the  assumption  of 
Vitringa,  and  showing  plainly  that  the  seven  spirits  are  called  seven 
lamps,  because  they  are  all-splendid  and  glorious,  like  the  o'^S'ib  in  Is. 
6:  1,  and  like  the  living  creatures  (min)  in  Ezek.  1:  13,  who  are  ex- 
pressly said  to  be  like  lamps. — Vitringa  further  appeals  to  Is.  11:  2, 
where  seven  spirits  are  ascribed  to  Christ ;  but  the  appeal  is  inapposite, 
because  there  he  is  represented  as  possessing  them,  and  they  are  not 
said,  as  here,  to  stand  before  his  throne.  Last  of  all  he  employs  the  a 
priori  argument :  'Is  it  probable,  that  John  would  have  omitted  the 
Holy  Spirit  and  inserted  only  angels,  in  such  a  passage  as  this  ?'  But 
what  if  we  should  ask :  Is  it  probable  that  in  all  the  benedictions  of 
Paul,  or  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Holy  Spirit  should  be  included 
only  once  ?  What  answer  must  be  given  we  know,  for  we  find  the 
Holy  Spirit  mentioned  in  such  a  connection  but  once.  In  a  great  ma- 
jority of  the  cases,  only  the  Saviour  is  included  in  the  benedictions. 
How  then  can  a  matter  of  this  nature  be  decided  by  an  argument  a 
priori  ? 

Moreover,  may  we  not  well  ask :  Did  it  comport  with  John's  views 
of  the  nature  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  represent  him  as  subordinate,  and 
as  standing  before  the  throne  of  God  in  the  attitude  of  waiting  for  his 
commands  ?  There  is  nothing  of  this  in  the  Bible.  We  do,  indeed, 
often  read  of  God's  sending  his  Spirit ;  and  also  of  his  sending  his  Son  ; 
but  never,  of  either  as  placed  simply  in  the  attitude  of  his  ministering 
servants.  Christ,  after  his  incarnation,  might  well  be  I'epresented  as  be- 
ing sent ;  but  the  Logos  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  considered  simply  as  divine, 
i.  e.  as  belonging  to  the  Godhead,  cannot,  without  degradation,  be  repi'e- 
sented  as  in  the  waiting  attitude  of  servants. 

We  come  then  from  the  necessity  of  the  case  to  a  third  meaning, 

viz.  that  of  ATTENDING  Or  MINISTEKING  PRESENCE-ANGELS. 

Among  the  ancient  fathers  not  a  few  embraced  this  view ;  such  as 
Clemens  Alex.,  Andreas  of  Cesarea,  and  others.  So  among  the  mod- 
erns, Valla,  Beza,  Drusius,  Hammond,  and  many  others.  It  was  not 
an  opinion,  then,  hitroduced  merely  by  adherents  to  the  Romish  custom 
of  making  intercession  to  the  angels.  AVe  shall  see  in  the  sequel,  that 
it  does  by  no  means  lead  to  the  establishment  of  such  a  doctrine  re- 
specting intercession.  That  presence-angels  are  here  designated,  is  the 
interpretation  which  I  adopt ;  and  this  for  reasons  which  may  be  briefly 
stated. 

(rt)  The  nature  of  the  whole  expression,  as  has  already  been  indica- 


^A 


Chap.  I.  5.  Ulr 

ted,  favours  this  view.  The  seven  spirits  before  his  throne^  naturnlly 
means  those  who  stand  in  his  presence,  waiting  his  commands  in  the 
attitude  of  ministering  servants ;  see  and  compare  Rev.  4:  5.  7:  9,  15. 
8:  2.  11:  4,  10.  12:  10.  14:  3.  20:  12,  which  passages,  aUhough  not  all 
of  tlie  same  tenor  with  the  text  before  us,  still  decide  that  those  who  are 
before  the  throne  are  diHferent  from  those  on  the  throne. 

(h)  Several  jiassages  in  the  Revelation  go  directly  to  confirm  the 
opinion  in  question.  !•>.  g.  Apoc.  8:  2,  "■  I  saw  t  o  i' s'  snru  uyytXovg, 
who  stand  before  God."  This  is  the  first  mention  of  these  seven  an- 
gels, which  occurs  after  the  introduction  to  the  book.  The  article  rovg 
of  course  designates  here  tlic  well-kiuncn  seven  angels,  i.  e.  archangels 
or  presence-angels,  which  the  reader  was  exjiected  readily  to  recognize. 
Such  a  meaning  is  unavoidable,  under  such  circumstances. — Here  also, 
I  cannot  doubt,  is  to  be  ranked  the  passage  in  Rev.  4:  5,  where  the  se- 
ven lamps  burning  before  the  throne,  are  said  to  be  t«  snra  nvtvuara 
70V  xhnv,  i.  e.  fhe  seven  spirits. 

If  the  question  be  raised,  as  it  has  been,  '  whether  7zvevf.taTa  can  be 
applied  to  angels',  the  answer  is  not  difficult.  Any  lexicon  or  concor- 
dance of  the  New  Testament  will  satisfy  the  reader  at  once,  that  nvev- 
fiu  and  7Tnvf(HTa,  usually  with  some  adjective  or  participle  qualifying 
them,  but  sometimes  without,  are  very  often  employed  to  designate  the 
devil  and  his  angels.  That  good  angels  may  be  designated  by  nvev^a- 
T«,  is  certain  from  Ileb.  1:  14.  So  in  Rev.  3:  1.  4:  5.  5:  6,  where,  if 
any  one  should  suppose  that  the  word  jirtvftura  designates  the  attributes 
of  Christ,  he  may  see  that  this  is  quite  improbable  ;  for  in  Rev.  3:  1, 
fjftoi'  r«  iTZTU  TTi'tvfiaTU  Tov  &S0V  is  joined  with  y.ui  tov<;  Ima  daztQUi;, 
i.  e.  the  seven  churches,  and  thus  it  is  manifest  that  tj^av  is  here  em- 
ployed, not  in  the  sense  of  possessing  as  an  attribute,  but  of  having  or 
holding  the  disposal  of  that  which  is  named  as  the  object  following  this 
participle.  So  in  Rev.  4:  5,  '  the  seven  nvevftaza  are  the  seven  lamps 
(i.  e.  resplendent  or  glorious  beings),  which  statid  before  the  throne  of 
God  f  and  so  in  Rev.  5:  6,  '  the  seven  spirits  are  sent  forth  into  all  the 
earth.^  That  Jewish  usage  permitted  good  angels  to  be  called  TTrevfiaza, 
is  plain  moreover  from  Josephus,  who  says  :  ayytXog  .  .  .  O^tlov  nrei'fiu, 
Antiq.  IV.  6.  3. 

All  the  passages  just  cited  from  the  Apocalypse  serve  to  show,  that 
THE  SEVEN  ANGELS  was  a  famiUar  idea  with  the  writer.  And  that,  in 
this  respect,  he  only  followed  the  common  nsus  loquendi  of  his  time, 
may  be  satisfactorily  shown.  Thus  the  book  of  Tobit,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest, most  simple,  and  attractive,  of  all  the  apocryphal  books  (12:  15), 
introduces  Raphael  as  saying:  "  I  am  .  .  .  one  of  the  seven  angels  .  .  , 
who  enter  into  the  presence  of  the  glory  of  the  Holy  One."  The 
Book  of  Enoch  (ch.  xx.)  gives  the  seven  names  of  the  angels  who 


22  Chap.  I.  5. 

watch,  i.  e.  of  the  I'^'i'^S ,  the  watchers  or  the  holy  presence-angels,  so 
called  because  they  stand  in  the  attitude  of  watchers  or  waiting  for  the 
divine  commands,  or  perhaps  because  they  perfonn  the  part  of  guar- 
dian angels  (comp.  Matt.  18:  10).  The  designation  is  evidently  taken 
from  Dan.  4:  10,  14,  20.  (Eng.  vers.  13,  17,  23.)  This  same  word, 
watchers,  is  familiarly  employed  in  the  Syriac  liturgies  for  guardian- 
angels,  or  archangels  (  l  *i  «S  ).  So  in  the  Book  of  Enoch,  in  the 
Greek  translation  given  by  Syncellus,  (Laurence,  p.  187),  angels  both 
good  and  bad  are  called  'EyQ^yoQoi,  watchers  ;  see  also  Enoch,  chap. 
XX.  as  quoted  above.  Nor  is  this  idea  of  seven  archangels  confined 
merely  to  the  Hebrews.  We  find  seven  Amshaspends,  or  archangels,  in 
the  theosophy  of  Zoroaster ;  see  Kleuker's  Zendavesta,  I.  Th.  II.  p. 
189,  where  their  seven  names  are  given  in  the  Zend  language.  All  this 
evidence  of  general  usage  from  books  antecedent  to  the  Apocalypse,  or 
nearly  contemporary  with  it,  helps  to  confirm  the  idea,  that  John  spoke 
in  accordance  with  such  usage. 

It  may  be  proper  moreover  to  remark,  that  whatever  the  number  of 
archangels  or  presence-angels  may  have  actually  been,  conformity  to 
plan  of  the  book  throughout  would  lead  the  author  here  to  mention 
only  seven.  The  churches  addressed  are  but  seven  ;  and  the  idea  of 
the  writer  seems  plainly  to  be,  that  each  church  had  its  appropriate 
guardian  angel.  Of  course  seven  angels  ai'e  the  requisite  number. 
That  blessings  may  be  conveyed  to  the  churches  whom  he  salutes,  by 
these  guardian  angels,  the  "  ministering  spirits  who  are  sent  forth  to 
minister  unto  the  heirs  of  salvation"  (Heb.  1:  14),  the  wi'iter  expresses, 
in  our  text,  his  fervent  wish. 

If  now  it  be  said,  that  '  such  an  interpretation  leads  to  angel-worship, 
or  at  least  to  the  invocation  of  angels  ;'  the  answer  is,  that  the  Apoca- 
lyptist  has  expressly,  and  perhaps  purposely,  guarded  us  against  such  a 
practice  in  Rev.  19:  10.  22:  9,  "  See  thou  do  it  not !"  Or  if  it  should 
be  said,  that  '  there  is  no  analogy  and  no  example  elsewhere  of  such  an 
invocation  as  that  before  us,  in  case  the  text  should  be  thus  explained ;' 
it  would  be  Avell  for  the  objector  to  consult  1  Tim.  5:  21,  "I  chai'ge 
thee  before  God,  and  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  elect  angels"  How  comes 
Paul  to  class  these  angels  with  God  and  Jesus  Christ  ?  Plainly  be- 
cause, considered  as  presence-angels,  they,  together  with  God  and 
Christ,  constitute  (so  to  speak)  the  supreme  court  of  heaven,  or  that 
awful  judicatory  which  will  take  cognizance  of  all  the  actions  of  men. 
Here  now  the  Holy  Spirit  is  either  omitted  by  Paul,  or  else  impliedly 
comprised  in  the  word  God ;  and  the  elect  angels  are  appealed  to  as 
witnesses  of  the  solemn  charge  which  Paul  is  about  to  give.  And  why  ? 
Because,  as  they  are  "  ministering  spirits,"  they  watch  over  and  report 


Chap.  I.  5.  M 

all  which  is  done  by  the  professed  disciples  of  Christ.  Comp.  also  Rev. 
3:  0.  ]Mark  8:  o8.  Luke  0:  2G.  12:  8,  where  a  similar  idea  is  found. 
Li  a  light  somewhat  dillerent,  indeed,  the  Apocalyptist  presents  thera, 
viz.,  as  the  dispensers  of  divine  blessings  to  the  churches.  But  this  is 
altogether  a  scriptural  idea.  What  he  says  then  is  this,  viz.,  It  is  his 
fervent  desire  that  the  blessings  of  grace  and  peace  may  be  bestowed 
on  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  —  blessings  which  Jehovah  dispenses, 
by  his  presence-angels,  and  by  the  Mediator  the  Lord  Jesus  Clirist. 
The  definite  and  specific  part  which  each  is  to  perform  iu  this  dispensa- 
tion of  blessings,  the  writer  does  not  designate  ;  nor  was  it  to  his  pur- 
pose so  to  do.  Enough  that  tliis  was  already  understood  by  his  read- 
el's  ;  and  surely  he  addressed  thorn  as  if  he  supposed  them  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  subject  in  general.  In  fact,  an  act  of  direct  homage 
or  worship  is  not  necessarily  involved  in  such  wislies  as  the  Apoca- 
lyptist here  expresses.  They  amount  simply  to  this,  viz.,  that  he  fer- 
vently hopes  for  and  desires  the  bestowment  of  important  blessings  on 
the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  on  the  part  of  those  superior  guardians  of 
the  churches  who  are  primarily  and  principally  concerned  with  the  be- 
stowment of  them.  If  one  should  say  to  an  ambassador,  appointed  to 
a  foreign  court :  "  I  heartily  wish  you  a  favourable  reception  from  the 
King  and  his  Counsellors,"  this  would  not  assert,  nor  even  imply,  an 
equality  between  the  two  parties  named.  Neither  does  the  inclusion 
of  guardian  angels  in  the  \vish  which  accompanies  the  salutation  of  the 
author  before  us,  imply  that  he  makes  them  equal  to  God  and  Christ, 
or  the  proper  object  of  religious  worship. 

For  a  more  extended  view  of  the  angelology  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
of  the  Apocalypse  where  angels  act  so  conspicuous  a  part,  I  must  refer 
the  reader  to  Excursus  I.  at  the  close  of  this  work ;  and  in  respect  to 
the  use  of  the  number  seven,  in  this  case,  I  must  refer  him  to  Excursus 
n,  where  he  will  find  the  symbolical  use  of  numbers  somewhat  fully 
discussed. 

'Jiiaov,  the  Saviour,  rrj^ ,  contracted  from  rsnr'iir;'  =  Jehovah  will 
save.  Xgiarov,  the  anointed  One  =  n'^«''a ,  Unctus,  referring  to  the 
ceremony  of  consecration  to  the  office  of  king  or  priest  by  anointing. 
In  the  New  Testament  it  refers,  as  it  would  seem,  specially  to  the 
otfice  of  king  or  y.vnio^  ;  in  accordance  with  the  usage  in  Ps.  2:  2,  G.  It 
is  this  office  or  dignity,  which  is  the  predominant  theme  of  the  INIessian- 
ic  Psalms,  e.  g.^  Ps.  ii.  viii.  xlv.  ex.  etc.  Also  of  Dan.  7:  13,  14,  and 
many  otlier  passages.  Here  Xqiotov  stands  connected  with  nn()}Tnzoy.og 
and  iiQ/bn',  both  indicative  of  snprewacg,  i.  e.  the  Saviour,  the  Anointed 
One,  means  the  lawfully  constituted  su])reme  Lord  and  King. 

'O  iiunrvg  6  niOTO',',  the  faithful  tvitness,  i.  e.  one  on  whose  testimony 
entire  reliance  may  be  placed.     IIiaTog,  faifhfid,  worthy  of  credit,  to  he 


24  Chap.  L  5. 

confided  in.  Mdnrv^,  not  marfyr  in  the  modern  sense,  although  in  fact 
Christ  might  be  called  a  martyr  to  the  truth,  but  here,  in  reference  to 
V.  2.  (/rtnrt's,"  means  one  who  (fives  testimony,  one  who  declares  or  makes 
disclosures  ;  see  on  ffi((QTVQt;ae  under  v.  2.  "^AHiat  the  writer  means  is, 
that  Jesus  Christ,  who  discloses  or  testifies  the  things  contained  in  the 
Eevelation  which  follows,  is  worthy  of  all  credit.  Ewald  applies  TiiOTog 
specially  to  the  keeping  of  the  promises  made  in  the  Apocalypse ;  but 
this  is  surely  a  singular  mode  of  construing  ttigto^  here,  for  it  plainly 
qualities  uanrv^,  and  uaoTi\^  means  one  who  declares  or  discloses.  For 
what  other  purpose  can  .T^rro,,'  be  designed,  except  to  signify  that  what 
the  witness  declares  is  worthy  of  credit  or  confidence  ? 

Inasmuch  as  o  ftdgrvg  6  niarog  is  here  in  apposition  with  /.  Xqig- 
TOi,  Ave  might  expect  the  Genitive  instead  of  the  Nominative  case.  Eich- 
horn  says  that  the  present  construction  is  contra  linguae  Graecae  ana- 
logiam  ;  but  that  it  is  by  no  means  unfi-equent.  may  be  seen  bt  consulting 
YoL  I.  §  15.  1.  N.  Test.  Gi^amm.  §  97.  5.  Bernhardy's  S^Titax.  p.  68 
seq.  See  also  Kiihner  s  Gnmim.  §  508.  2.  Eichhorn  in  order  to  rec- 
tify the  writer's  Greek,  proposes  Os  ianv  6  uunn;:  iusead  of  the  pre- 
sent text ;  which  at  least  is  unnecessary. 

O  TTQcoTOToxo^  ToSr  rsxQtor.  The  v^il^jite  text  has  ix  here  ;  but  with- 
out due  authority  of  Mss.  It  is  indeed  a  more  facile  reading,  and  is  ex- 
hibited  by  Paul  in  Col.  1:  18,  fTQcoTozn-AO'^  ix  rcov  nxQcor.  The  only 
question  of  dithculty  is.  whether  the  writer  means  to  say.  that  of  all  who 
had  died  Christ  is  the  most  distingwised,  i.  e.  the  leader  or  chief;  or 
whether  he  means  to  say,  that  he  is  first  and  preeminent  among  all  who 
are  raised,  or  are  to  be  raised,  from  the  dead,  or,  in  other  words,  that  he 
takes  the  lead  in  the  resurrection  and  precedes  all  others  in  point  of 
rank.  The  mere  form  of  the  expression  would  favour  the  former  sense  ; 
and  for  such  a  use  of  jtoiototoxo^  one  might  compai'e  Eom.  8:  29,  and 
also  Heb.  12:  23  where  it  is  applied  to  the  preeminence  of  the  church  in 
general.  For  the  latter  meaning  we  may  appeal  to  Col.  1:  18.  and  to 
the  usage  of  (cyuaTuait  in  connection  with  yexncoy  as  a  (ren.  following 
it.  Thus  we  have  uyuGTuais'  fx  r^xocoy  in  Luke  20:  35.  Acts  4:  2.  17: 
31 ;  but  dyuGTaai^  rexocoy  in  Matt.  22:  31.  Acts  17:  32.  24:  21.  26:  23. 
Bom.  1:  4.  1  Cor.  15:  12,  13,  21,  42.  Heb.  6:  2 ;  and  both  formulas  are 
used  substantially  in  the  same  sense.  Indeed  there  can  scarcely  be  any 
doubt,  that  the  writer  has  here  in  view  an  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  risen 
and  living  Saviour,  who  has  already  led  the  way  in  that  glorious  resur- 
rection on  which  the  sequel  of  the  book  so  much  insists.  Compare  the 
like  shade  of  thought  in  Rev.  2:  8,  Os  iyiviro  rrxoo^,  xai  tD/rrf.  So 
Paul  1  Cor.  15:  20,  ••  Xow  is  Christ  risen  from  the  dead,  and  become 
t«.7«o//;  Tcor  xfxoiui;uiycoy."  'Arxun/^i'i  is  employed  by  Paul  in  the  same 
sense  as  7tQ(iat6zoxo<i  by  John ;  with  the  exception,  that  there  is  in  nQoa- 


^  ^  Chap.  I.  6.  25 

TOToxos'  a  metaphorical  meaning  which  refers  to  birth,  i.  e.  to  sach  a  re- 
Ptoration  of  life  a^*  may  be  compared  with  a  hirth.  So  in  Rev.  20:  4,  5, 
also  in  2:  8,  tt'tM  is  rei>eatedly  applied  to  revivtscence.  John  then  means 
.*o  say,  that  Christ  is  the  first  of  all  the  dead,  on  whom  a  resurrection- 
life  (sit  venia  I)  had  been  l>estowed,  and  that  among  all  sueh  he  holds 
and  will  hold  the  preeminence  ;  just  as  primogeniture  among  the  Hel»rew8 
designated,  at  the  same  time,  priority  of  birth  and  priority  of  privilege. 
And  if  any  one  should  object,  that  the  Old  Testament  Scripture  and  the 
New  present  us  with  several  cases  of  resurrection  antecedent  to  that  of 
Christ,  this  objection  would  be  of  no  validity  ;  for  in  those  ca^es  individ- 
uals were  raised  only  to  another  natural  terrestrial  life,  and  they  must 
again  be  subject  to  death  ;  whereas  death  had  no  more  dominion  over 
the  risen  Saviour  .  .  .  '  for  in  that  he  lived,  he  lived  unto  God,'  Kora,  6: 
(♦,  10.  So  he  was  in  fact  drraoyrj  roiv  xexoiuriunoyv,  and  nnonoto'Aog 
rexQuir,  the  first  who  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  a  resurrection  to  eternal 
glory,  and  at  the  same  time  was  invested  »vith  all  the  rights  of  primoge- 
niture, i.  e.  was  constituted  leader,  uQ/(ar,  of  all  who  would  thus  be 
i-aised  from  the  dead. 

0  do/ior  zbiv  ^uadt'biv  ti,^  yr^^;.  Here  uq/ojp  designates  the  head, 
leader,  the  first  in  rank,  or  him  who  rules  over  other  kings  that  have  a  name 
like  his  own,  but  not  power  like  hLs;  corap.  Rev.  17:  14.  19:  16,  ^aat).- 
(v^  {iu<j().t'(av  xai  xvnto.;  y.vrn'ojv  ;  also  Ps.  ii.  xlv.  ex.  Is.  9:  6,  7.  Eph. 
1:  22.  4:  LO.  PhiL  2:  9—11.  Col.  1:  1.0—18.  Heb.  1:  2,  3.  In  our 
text  the  kings  of  the  earth  are  named,  because  a  contest  with  them  is 
disclosed  in  the  sequel  of  the  book,  and  the  victory  and  supremacy  over 
them  are  exhibited. 

Such  are  the  predicates  of  the  Saviour,  whose  victories  are  the  theme 
of  the  book.  The  mention  of  such  qualities  naturally  calls  forth  a  dox- 
ology  directed  to  the  glorious  personage  who  possesses  them. 

(6)  To  him  who  loveth  us,  and  has  washed  us  from  our  sins  in  his  own  blood, 
and  made  us  a  kingdom  [i.  e.  kings],  priests  unto  God  even  his  Father — to  him 
be  glory  and  dominion  forever  and  ever.  Amen  I 

The  division  of  verses  in  the  vulgate  text  is  palpably  wrong  here. 
Verse  G  should  begin  as  I  have  marked  it ;  for  so  the  sense  clearly  indi- 
cates.— \-iyu7ibnTi,  pres.  Part.,  instead  of  dyunrinum  in  the  vulgate  text, 
which  is  without  good  authority,  and  does  not  give  so  full  and  emphatic 
a  sense  as  dyanwvri. 

yJoi'GavTi,  in  several  Codd.,  and  in  some  of  high  authority,  (also  in  the 
'^ynuc  yer-i'ion),  h  resA  Kvouvzi,  freed,  redeemed.  The  sense  is  good; 
but  the  present  reading,  )j)vaarTi,  (from  ).ovco  to  trash,  purify,  cleanse), 
is  more  vivid  here,  and  more  in  conformity  with  the  Hebrew  idiom. 
Thus  in  Ps.  51:  4,  ■'S^ra  "?OS3,  tocuh  me,  i.  e.  cleanse  me,  from  mine  ini-» 

VOL.  II.  4 


26  Chap.  I.  fi. 

quity.  So  Ps.  51:  9,  and  to  the  same  purpose  Heb.  10:  22,  ioQUVtia- 
[it'roi ....  dno  ovvtid/jaecog  novtjQcig,  purijied  from  an  evil  conscience. 
The  primary  and  literal  meaning  of  Xovauvti,  I  have  retained  in  the  ver- 
sion, in  order  to  present  the  exact  image  of  the  original.  Hie  usual 
Jewish  rite  of  purification  by  blood,  however,  was  performed  by  sprink- 
llny,  not  by  bathing  in  it.  The  writer  employs  lovauvTi.  to  designate 
the  abundant  or  ample  purification  made  by  the  blood  of  Christ.  As  to 
the  efficacy  of  this  blood  to  purify  from  sin,  comp.  the  more  literal  ex- 
pression in  1  John  1:  7.  Heb.  9:  14.  1  Pet.  1:  18,  19,  and  uTTtlomuoOs 
in  1  Cor.  6:  11.  See  also  Rev.  5:  9.  Eph.  1:  7.  Col.  1:  14,  et  al.  All 
the  ancient  sacrifices,  offered  in  accordance  with  the  Levitical  rites,  could 
avail  no  more  than  to  remove  external  and  ceremonial  impurity,  and 
procure  temporal  pardon.  The  blood  of  Christ  accomplishes  that  which 
they  i)refigured  ;  see  and  comp.  Heb.  9:  G — 10:  14. 

!/^77o  tdjv  a^iunrmv,  ft'om  the  impurity,  turpitude  of  sin,  and  so  (by 
consequence)  from  its  penalty.  Thus  in  Matt.  1:  21,  "  Thou  shalt  call 
his  name  Jesus,  for  he  shall  save  his  people  dno  rav  uiiUQTibiv  dvzav," 
1.  e.  from  the  power  and  penalty  of  tlieir  sins.  That  the  blood  of  Christ 
shed  upon  the  cross  has  a  purifying  and  redeeming  efficacy — is  a  truth 
which  constitutes  the  very  essence  and  peculiarity  of  Christianity,  in  dis- 
tinction from  doctrines  taught  by  other  religions ;  many  of  which  doctrines, 
specially  respecting  moral  and  social  duties,  are  substantially  like  to  those 
of  a  similar  nature  in  the  gospel.  That  which  makes  Christianity  what  it 
is — a  peculiar  religion — finds  its  nucleus  in  the  truth  here  developed. 

Kai  t7ioii](rsv  . . .  ^aailsiav,  kin ff ship,  i.  e.  kings,  the  abstract  being  put 
for  the  concrete,  as  in  a  multitude  of  cases  elsewhere  in  the  Scriptures. 
In  respect  to  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  clause,  it  is  evident 
that  noii]aavn — like  dyunwvTi  and  ).ovaavri — would  be  the  normal  form. 
But  participles  in  Hebrew  and  Greek  often  commence  a  sentence,  which 
is  continued  by  a  verh  in  a  succeeding  clause.  This  is  a  species  of  the 
oratio  variata  ;  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §196.  Heb.  Gramni.  §  5G4.  In  the 
later  Hebi'ew  this  construction  abounds  peculiarly,  e.  g.  in  the  book  of 
Daniel ;  and  so  also  in  the  later  Greek. — BuGilsiav  has  been  introduced 
instead  of  the  vulgate  ^uctXek',  into  the  critical  editions  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  is  supported  by  such  a  weight  of  external  testimony, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  decline  the  admittance  of  it.  Still  in  Rev.  5:  10,  we 
find  without  contradiction  or  variation,  y.(u  tTZOi'ijaug  uvzovg  zco  {yeco  rjfi- 
cov  ^aatleh'  x««  lEQEtg,  giving  the  same  sense  in  more  (acile  Greek.  But 
as  an  offset  to  this,  one  may  appeal  to  Ex.  19:  6,  where  God  says  re- 
specting the  Hebrews  :  "  Ye  shall  be  unto  me  d"':0.3  "^^r"?  j  «  kingdom 
of  priests''  ;  Avhich  the  Septuagint  have  rendered  ^aoD.tinr  iwdrti'iia,  a 
royal  priesthood,  and  so  also  Peter,  in  1  Pet.  2:  9.  This  version  is  de- 
fended by  Storr   (N.  Apol.  p.  414),  and  some  others ;    and  although 


CiiAP.  I.  G.  27^ 

EwaKl  (in  loo.)  denies  the  correctness  of  such  a  version,  it  may  ha  de- 
iVndod  by  the  idiom  of  the  Hebrew,  which  not  unl'reiiiKMitly  employs  the 
first  of  two  nouns  ia«the  construct  state  as  an  adjective,  as  well  as  the 
L\tter  of  them  (which  is  most  common),  Ileb.  Gramm.  §  440.  h.  If  the 
present  critical  rcadinix,  p'«(Tf/.^m*',  itntii,',  is  correct,  then  has  John  j^ivon 
a  liti'ral  translation  of  the  Hebrew  words  in  Ex.  I'J:  G,  construing  each 
word  as  grammatically  independent  of  the  other,  or  at  least  not  regard- 
ing them  as  in  the  construct  state.  In  such  a  case  Uoeig  is  to  be  consid- 
ered as  epexegetical ;  and  the  sense  of  the  passage  then  would  be : 
'  He  has  constituted  us  a  kingly  order,  the  members  of  which  are  all 
like  priests,  i.  e.  holy  and  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God,  and  in  pos- 
session of  an  elevated  dignity.'  The  sense  indeed  must  be  substantially 
the  same,  whether  the  vulgate  or  the  critical  reading  be  adopted.  The 
writer  means  to  say,  that  those  who  are  loved  by  the  Saviour,  and  have 
been  cleansed  by  his  blood,  have  been  elevated  to  a  high  and  holy  state, 
like  that  of  kings  and  priests.  That  the  language  is  tropical,  needs 
scarcely  to  be  suggested ;  for  if  all  Christians  are  actually  kings,  who 
then  are  their  sitb/'ects  f  And  if  all  are  actually  priests,  where  and  for 
whom  do  they  perform  huM-atic  rites  ?  As  the  literal  sense,  then,  is  out 
of  all  question,  the  figurative  one  becomes  a  matter  of  necessity ;  and 
such  a  sense  is  the  one  which  has  already  been  suggested.  If  a  distinc- 
tion is  to  be  made  between  the  words  h'/if/s  and  priests,  in  passages  of 
this  nature,  (and  it  is  not  difficult  to  make  one),  then  we  must  regard 
liiiffs  as  designating  the  high  elevation  of  Christians,  and  also  the  abun- 
<lance  and  honours  (in  a  spiritual  sense)  bestowed  upon  them  ;  while 
the  appellation  priests  designates  their  peculiar  consecration  to  God  and 
their  holiness  of  character,  and  also  implies  a  claim  of  veneration  as 
due  to  them.  All  this  is  plain  to  any  one,  who  duly  considei-s  the  na- 
ture of  the  terms  employed  and  the  writer's  design  in  selecting  them. 
Other  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  also,  affbrd  abundant  evidence  of  such  a 
ustts  loquendi  among  the  Jews.  Let  the  reader  carefully  compare  Is.  61: 
G.  1  Pet.  2:  o.  Rev.  5:  10.  20:  6,  as  to  UnhTg.  Then  as  to  (imiltig, 
comp.  Ps.  49:  14,  "  The  upright  shall  have  dominion."  Dan.  7:  22,  27. 
^latt,  19:  28.  Luke  22:  29,  30.  1  Cor.  6:  2,  3.  2  Tim.  2:  12.  Rev.  2: 
2G,  27.  3:  21.  Literal  we  may  suppose  such  phrases  to  be,  only  v,rhen 
we  come  to  the  conclusion,  that  all  the  language  employed  by  the  Scrip- 
tures respecting  God  and  heaven,  must  be  literally  interpi'eted.  And 
if  the  writer  in  the  present  case  meant,  as  he  doubtless  did,  to  express 
himself  sti*ongly  respecting  the  honour,  dignity,  and  j)rivileges  of  saintvS, 
wliat  more  appropriate  language  could  he  employ,  than  that  which  he 
lijus  selected  ?  Kings  merely  would  not  mean  enough.  Elevation,  dig- 
nity, |)Ower,  splendour,  and  abundance,  might  indeed  be  included  in  this 
idea;  but  to  add  priests,  in  order  to  designate  holiness  of  character  and 


28  Chap.  I.  6. 

consecration  to  God,  seemed  to  be  necessary  here,  in  order  fully  to  meet 
the  writer's  wishes,  and  the  nature  of  the  case.  See  a  ditfcrent  but 
kindred  method  of  making  out  a  like  representation,  in  Rom.  8:  16,  17. 
John  1:  12.  1  John  3:  1. 

Toi  x9-£fj)  y.cu  TzariH  avzov,  [priests]  to  God  even  his  Father  means, 
that  they  were  consecrated  or  devoted  to  him,  and  employed  in  his  ser- 
vice ;  a  wide  distinction  thei'efore  existed  between  them  and  the  so- 
called  priests  of  the  heathen  world,  and  even  between  them  and  ritual 
Levitical  priests. 

AvTc^  ?;  86^a  /Uti  to  'AQUTog,  where  the  article  stands  before  each 
noun  ;  appropriately  as  it  respects  the  Greek  idiom,  but  it  is  not  customa- 
ry in  English.  The  article  in  such  a  case  denotes,  that  the  glory  and  the 
praise  or  dominion,  which  are  appropriate  to  such  a  Saviour  as  he  had 
described,  should  be  ascribed  to  him.  That  uvzm  refere  to  dyanMvti 
iand  Xovoavti,  to  him  who  loves  and  has  cleansed  sinners,  is  certain  from 
the  construction  of  the  sentence ;  for  on  any  other  ground  of  construc- 
tion the  whole  of  the  first  part  of  the  sentence  would  be  without  any  ap- 
propriate sense,  and  the  Dative  case  would  stand  without  anything  re- 
lated to  it,  or  to  be  attributed  to  the  person  designated  by  it.  Avtc^ 
merely  resumes  the  dyaTZcom  and  Xovaavri,  which  had  been  suspended 
by  the  intermediate  clause. — /Jo^a,  in  classical  Greek,  usually  means 
opinion,  sentiment,  expectation,  supposition,  etc. ;  but  sometimes  it  is 
employed  in  the  sense  of  existimatio,  i.  e.  estimation,  fame,  honour,  repu- 
tation or  respect.  Kindred  to  this  last  class  of  meanings  is  the  word 
86'^a  in  New  Testament  doxologies.  To  him  be  6'oi«  means,  to  him  let 
the  church  render  honour  or  respect ;  for  this  is  giving  glory  to  God,  as 
we  usually  express  it.-— A'()«zo?  Ewald  renders  praise,  and  refers  us  to 
the  Hebrew  Ti'l  "Ti^S,  on  which  he  remarks,  that  i'J  (strength)  often 
means  the  praise  which  results  from  the  exercise  of  strength  in  the  way 
of  defence,  etc.  So  many  lexicons  and  critics  also  say.  But  it  is  at 
least  needless  here.  When  the  writer  had  just  said  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
that  he  is  the  first  horn  of  the  dead,  and  the  prince  of  the  Icings  of  the 
earth,  is  it  not  appropriate  to  attribute  'AQarog  to  him  here  ?  In  the  la- 
ter Greek,  superior  command,  lordship,  dominion,  regal  authority,  is  of- 
ten designated  by  y.Qazog ;  and  why  not  retain  its  usual  and  appropriate 
meaning  here  ? 

Elg  Tovg  alojvag  zwv  aiMvav,  to  ages  of  ages,  i.  e.  forever  and  ever, 
as  we  are  wont  to  express  the  idea  of  a  never  ending  period.  The 
Greek  is  a  mere  copy  of  the  Hebrew  D"ir)Vi:s>  ^"^hvJ ;  and  this,  according 
to  Hebrew  usage,  is  the  strongest  expression  which  the  language  can 
employ,  in  order  to  designate  an  endless  period  of  time  ;  for  it  has 
a  superlative  intensity,  similar  to  that  of  servant  of  servants,  i.  e.  most 
abject  or  degraded  servant,  and  the  like.     The  classic  writers  do  not 


•_  CiiAP.  1. 7.  29 

employ  this  phraseology  for  such  a  purpose ;  the  Greek  here  is   He- 
braistic. 

Here  then  is  a  cloxology  or  ascription  of  honour  and  dominion  to  the 
Saviour,  through  endless  ages.  And  this,  sanctioned  by  a  solemn  ufii]v. 
In  what  light  must  John  have  viewed  the  Saviour,  in  order  to  make 
such  an  ascription  to  him?  If  it  be  said  that  John  has  so  done  through 
mistake,  and  because  his  feelings  were  overjjowered  by  the  splendour  of 
the  vision  in  which  the  Saviour  appears ;  then  why  is  he  not  cor- 
rected here,  as  he  is  in  Rev.  19:  10.  22:  9,  when  about  to  direct  his 
homage  amiss  ?  Instead  of  this,  we  find  him,  in  this  book,  often  repeat- 
ing the  same  ascriptions  of  praise  to  the  Lord  .Jesus  as  are  rendered  to 
Grod  the  Father ;  and  this  even  Eichhorn  and  Ewald  confess.  Plainly 
nothing  less  than  spiritual  homage  is  paid  to  the  Redeemer  here — a 
homage  which  the  writer  prays  may  be  forever  continued. 

(7)  Behold,  lie  coinelh  in  the  clouds,  and  every  e3'e  shall  sec  him,  and  tiiey 
who  pierced  him,  and  all  the  tribes  of  the  land  shall  wail  because  of  him  ;  yen, 
amen. 

'Jdov,  hke  the  Hebrew  riin ,  ecce,  calls  the  special  attention  of  the 
reader  or  hearer  to  what  is  said  in  the  sequel. — "EQ/srai,  he  is  coming, 
as  we  also  say,  in  English,  respecting  an  event  yet  future,  specially 
when  that  event  is  nigh  at  hand.  That  such  was  the  case  in  the  present 
instance,  is  manifest  from  h  T«/ff,  and  xaiQng  f'/yv^',  in  vs.  1  and  3. 

Meza  T(3v  rE(f)e).(ov  means,  accompanied  or  surrounded  by  the  clouds, 
for  iitrd  (with)  frequently  indicates  the  relation  of  a  thing  in  the 
midst  of  other  things  which  accompany  or  surround  it.  The  idea  here 
is,  that  he  will  come  seated  on  a  cloud  as  his  throne  or  chariot,  or  at 
least  in  a  cloud  moving  or  conveying  these.  8o  God  is  said  to  be  sur- 
rounded, in  Ps.  18:  11.  The  clouds  are  his  chariot,  Ps.  104:  3.  Comp. 
also  Ex.  19:  16.  40:  34.  Is.  G:  4.  19:  1.  Ezek.  1:  4.  The  object  of 
this  figurative  language,  is  to  show  that  Christ  will  come  in  a  majestic 
and  awful  manner,  as  enthroned  upon  a  cloud  fraught  with  thunder, 
lightning,  and  tempest,  and  thus  will  execute  vengeance  upon  his  ene- 
mies. The  same  idea  is  exhibited  in  Matt.  24:  30,  with  which  comp. 
Nah.  1:  3.     The  passage  in  Acts  1:  9  is  of  a  different  tenor. 

//«,•  orpl}(diws%  every  eye,  i.  e.  every  person,  every  individual;  where 
synecdoche  (a  part  taken  for  the  whole)  is  employed.  This  usage  is  too 
common  to  need  any  explanation. — "Owszai,  Mid.  Fut.,  wliich  tense  is 
common  in  a  great  portion  of  the  usual  irregular  verbs,  and  is  thus  em- 
ployed in  the  simple  active  sense.  The  old  root  of  the  present  verb 
was  DTTTO),  which  is  out  of  use  ;  OTrrdvo)  is  occasionally  found,  from  which 
oipnuiu  may  be  formed.  That  the  lexicons  should  range  this  word  un- 
der onuo),  would  seem  strange,  were  we  not  habituated  to  such  inoon- 


30  Chap.  I.  7. 

gruities.  The  sentiment,  that  every  eye  shall  see  hinij  is  evidently  in- 
tended to  be  preparatory  for  that  which  is  said  in  the  sequel :  x«f  y.o\pov- 
rai  X.  T.  X.  If  the  reader  will  turn  to  the  words  of  the  vSaviour  in 
Matt.  24:  30,  he  will  perceive  that  the  verse  before  us  is  throughout  only 
a  I'eijetition  of  what  is  there  said,  with  some  small  variations  appropriate 
to  the  time  Avhen  the  Apocalypse  was  written. 

It  may  be  proper  here,  in  order  to  show  how  common  the  idea  of  the 
Son  of  man  as  coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  was  among  the  Jews  of 
early  times,  to  note,  that  one  appellation  bestowed  on  him  was  ''335,  q-  d. 
cloud-comer  ;  and  also  ibss  "i3  ,  (=  f  fot,-  vtCftXrj'i  ?)  which,  when  applied 
to  the  Son  of  man,  must  mean  his  sudden  and  unexpected  coming  or  de- 
scent from  the  clouds;  comp.  Matt.  16:  1.  This  language  doubtless 
took  its  rise  from  Dan.  7:  13.  See  Bengel  Archiv,  VIII.  p.  24 ;  also 
Ewald  in  loc. 

Kai  oiiirtg  avTor  i^Extrrtjoav,  is  quoted  from  Zech.  12:  10,  as  is  also 
a  part  of  the  preceding  and  of  the  following  words  ;  which  is  evident 
from  comparison  :  l''^^"  ^llSDl  ^';j|^'i-"irN  nx  iiLJ-^atil .  By  the  phrase  be- 
fore us,  those  are  particularized,  among  the  mass  that  shall  see  with 
dread  the  tokens  of  an  approacliing  avenger,  who  were  specially  con- 
cerned with  the  crucifixion  of  the  Lord  of  glory.  ^E'ityJvzrjoav  (from 
fy.y.£pzi'(xi)  may  of  course  signify  putting  to  death  or  destroying  in  any 
manner ;  for  it  may  be  used  generically,  just  as  slaying  with  the  sword 
is.  But  the  verb  is  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  designation  of  ]>iercing 
with  a  spear,  or  with  any  sharp  weapon,  and  is  often  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Those  who  are  not  inclined  to  admit  of  any  specific  Messianic 
views  in  the  Old  Testament,  construe  it  tropically  in  Zech.  1 2:  10,  and 
apply  it  oidy  to  Jehovah.  But  that  the  writer  of  the  book  before  us  in- 
terpreted it  as.  a  specific  Messianic  prediction,  is  plain  enough  to  every 
unprejudiced  eye.  More  still  may  be  said.  John  is  the  only  Evangel- 
ist who  has  given  us  an  account  of  piercing  Jesus'  side  with  a  spear,  as 
he  hung  upon  the  cross,  John  19:  34.  In  the  context  there  (v.  37)  he 
expressly  refers  to  the  passage  in  Zech.  12:  10  as  pi'edicting  this  ;  and 
there  he  translates  ^^p'n  by  iSey.ivr>jaav,  just  as  in  the  present  case. 
Yet  the  Septuagint  version  renders  the  passage  :  ii»^Xsipovzai  noog  fis 
dp&'  COP  xa7(x)Q)^j'jGavTo,  i.  e.  they  shall  look  to  me  because  they  have 
insulted  me.  And  although  Aquila,  Symm.,  and  Theodotion,  render 
ii^pl  by  itr/JviVjaav,  yet  their  versions,  as  is  probable,  were  not  extant 
in  the  time  of  the  Apocalyptist.  John  then  must  have  translated  the 
Hebrew  original,  in  this  case,  for  himself.  And  here  it  should  be  noted, 
that  in  both  cases,  viz.  in  the  Gospel  and  in  the  Apocalypse,  the  version 
is  exactly  the  same,  as  to  all  the  important  words.  This  looks  like  the 
same  hand  in  both.  Ewald,  to  avoid  the  force  of  this  appeal,  suggests, 
that  formerly  the  Septuagint  copies  may  have  read  i^ey.tvrrjaav,  which 


CirAr.  I.  7.  31 

■w.is  displaced  by  Origen,  or  some  other  cmcndntor.  If  this  be  a  lawful 
escape  from  the  force  of  the  appeal,  then  there  is  no  case  %vhere  a  man 
can  be  bound  by  appeal  to  the  Septuafjint  text;  for  he  may  always  say: 
'  Onre  it  contained  a  ditVerent  rcadin-;.'  This  is  cerUnu]y  possible  ;  but 
yet,  until  some  evidence  for  a  chanjie  is  ])roduced,  we  must  abide  by  the 
text  as  it  is.  His  suggestion,  that  two  diiferent  writers  might  easily 
have  hit  upon  the  same  translation  of  ''"ip'^J ,  certaiidy.has  more  weight 
in  it  than  the  other  apin-al ;  and  indeed  the  nature  of  the  case,  thus  pre- 
sented, shows  that  no  more  than  prohaJnlity  can  ha  nrged,  in  favour  of 
the  jtosition  that  the  same  hand  was  concerned  with  both  passages. 
See  Stein,  in  Winer's  Theol.  Journal,  V.  p.  24  seq.,  who  has  strenuously 
insisted  on  the  force  of  this  evidence,  in  favour  of  the  apostolic  origin  of 
Apocalypse.  I  should  say,  that  the  circumstance  of  a  reference  to  the 
pierced  side  of  the  Saviour,  meiifioiied  only  by  John  among  all  the  Evan- 
gelists, and  again  distinctly  brought  to  view  here,  affords  stronger  ground 
of  presumption  that  the  same  hand  was  employed  in  both  the  passages, 
than  the  circumstance  of  the  sameness  of  translation  as  mentioned  above. 

Aoi/'OJT«(,  Fut.  ]Midd.  voice,  a])propriately  here:  heat  themselves,  viz. 
smite  upon  the  breast,  or  thigh,  as  was  customary  on  occasions  of  deep 
agitadon  and  fear,  and  of  soi-row. — ^En  uviov,  because  of  him,  on  ac- 
count of  him  ;  Rob.  Lex.  tnl,  III.  2.  c.  a. 

Tlaaai  ai  q^v7,a)  rtji;  j7/>,'  is  language  borrowed  fiom  the  ancient  Pie- 
brew  Scripture,  where  the  Jews  are  often  spoken  of  as  the  tivelve  tribes, 
among  whom  all  the  land  of  Canaan  was  partitioned.  Of  course  the 
expression  here  is  designed  to  be  comprehensive,  and  to  denote  all  who 
dwelt  in  the  land  here  referred  to.  What  land  this  was,  seems  plain 
from  the  context,  where  reference  is  made  to  those  concei'ned  in  the 
crucifixion  of  Christ.  Then  again  the  very  manner  of  the  description, 
qv).ai',  etc.,  shows  that  Palestine  is  here  in  view  on  the  part  of  the  Avri- 
ter.  And  so  the  se(|uel,  chap,  vi — xi,  fully  demonstrates.  I  would  not 
deny  that  r-nsr-^  may  be  sometimes  used  respecting  difierent  -nations, 
and  so  the  corresponding  (pvlai,  as  in  the  Septuagint.;  but  here  the  con- 
nection demands  a  different  understanding  of  it,  and  such  an  one, 
moreover,  comports  with  common  usage. 

A  «/,  «/</;)',  a  douljle  ex[)ression  of  so  he  it,  assuredly,  certainly,  one 
in  Greek  and  one  in  Ilelirew.  Comp.  Rev.  22:  20.  The  like  double 
expression  has  Paul  in  Rom.  8:  1 6,  u^^a,  6  narfiQ !  Besides  this,  the 
designation  of  both  Greek  and  Hebrew  names  is  comnio:i  in  John's 
Gospel;  e.  g.  John  1:  3!),  4.'}.  9:  7.  comp.  Ileb.  7:  2.  Two  words  of 
synonymous  import  are  designed  to  strengthen  the  expression  of  an 
idea.  John  means  to  say,  that  the  coming  of  the  Lord  Jesus  to  punish 
bis  enemies  and  crucifiers,  is  altogether  certain. 


32  Chap.  I.  8. 

(8)  T  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  saith  the  Lord  God,  who  is,  and  was,  and  is  to 
come,  the  Almighty. 

What  is  meant  by  Alpha  and  Omega  is  plain  from  Rev.  1:  17,  where 
it  is  explained  by  6  TrQaTo<;  y.ai  6  iayajog;  and  again  in  Rev.  22:  13, 
where  all  these  appellations  are  joined  together.  The  reference  is 
plain,  Alpha  being  the  first  and  Omega  the  last  letter' of  the  Greek 
alphabet.  Among  the  Rabbins,  the  expression  jO'om  t<  to  n  is  common, 
in  order  to  designate  the  whole  of  anything  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end;  e.  g.  Jalk.  Reub.  fol.  17.  4,  "Adam  transgressed  the  whole  law, 
from  N  to  r."  lb.  48.  4,  "  Abraham  kept  the  whole  law,  from  x  to  n ," 
etc.  See  other  examples  in  Schoettgen  Hor.  Heb.  I.  p.  1086.  The 
article  here,  before  the  names  of  the  letters,  is  appropriate  in  Greek, 
although  we  do  not  employ  it  in  English.  The  respective  letters,  as 
well-known  and  monadic,  may  very  properly  receive  it. 

But  who  is  it  that  makes  the  claim  involved  in  the  application  of  such 
language  to  himself?  yityn  xvQtog  6  d^eog,  is  the  answer  in  most  of  the 
critical  editions  ;  and  certainly  the  majority  of  witnesses  testify  in  fa- 
vour of  this  reading.  Ewald,  however,  pi-efers  the  vulgate  reading 
■AVQiog,  in  consequence  of  what  is  said  of  Christ  in  Rev.  1:  17.  22:  12 
— IG.  And  indeed  one  can  hardly  make  this  comparison,  without 
feeling  a  probability  that  o  &s6g  has  in  fact  been  added  to  the  original 
text.  But  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  clear  that  the  passage  as  it  is,  which- 
ever reading  may  be  adopted,  may  refer  to  Christ  as  the  speaker  ;  for 
it  may  be  the  same  that  is  "  coming  in  the  clouds,  etc.,"  who  is  the 
speaker  in  this  present  case.  So  Ewald,  and  even  Heinrichs,  concedes. 
The  former  says :  Christum  deo  proximum  et  in  Apocalypsi  saepius 
Dei  epithetis  ornatum  haec  effari  ostendant  [nexus  loci,  etc.]  ;  the  lat- 
ter:  Ipse  [Christus]  in  omni  carmine  divinis  praedicatis  insignitur. 
Still,  the  weight  of  external  testimony  is  greatly  in  favour  of  xvQiog  6 
'O'Eog,  as  may  be  seen  in  Griesbach.  Admitting  this  latter  text,  it  is 
more  facile  to  regard  God  as  the  speaker.  V.  8  is  then  a  confirma- 
tion on  the  part  of  God  himself  of  what  the  Apocalyptist  had  just  been 
saying,  in  respect  to  the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  consequent  punish- 
ment of  his  enemies.  It  is  as  much  as  to  say  :  '  I  the  almighty  and  un- 
changeable God  will  execute  this  commination.'  The  sense  therefore 
is  good  and  apposite,  when  taken  in  this  way.  Nor  need  the  reader  be 
jealous  lest  something  should  hereby  be  detracted  from  the  honour  and 
glory  of  Christ ;  for  the  very  same  things  are,  beyond  all  doubt,  said  of 
him  in  Rev.  1:  17.  22:  13.  There  is  surely  no  need  of  forcing  doubt- 
ful passages  into  the  rank  of  proof-passages. 

The  vulgate  has  (Iq/Ji  y.ai.  7tlog  after  the  clause  "  I  am  Alpha  and 
Omega."     But  this  is  not  sufficiently  supported. 


Chap.  I.  9.  83 

As  to  6  Mf  xai  n  /]i'  xni  6  {Qxriftevog,  see  on  v.  4  It  is  merely  a 
paraphrastic  explanation  of  the  word  Jehovah. —  O  TTccrtoxndiaQ  is  the 
usual  word  employed  by  the  Septuagint  to  render  rixsri ,  when  consti- 
tutinji  a  part  of  the  name  of  Grod;  and  so  they  also  translate  "^vd;  and 
the  Greek  word  is  well  adapted  to  designate  the  leading  idea  of  both 
these  Hebrew  appellations.  Higher  titles  than  these  cannot  be  bestow- 
ed on  any  being ;  and  such  are  here  bestowed  on  Him  who  is  the 
FiKST  AND  THK  LAST.  The  clausc  in  question  seems  to  favour  the 
reading  xi'/xos  o  i>fOs". 

The  writer  having  thus  finishod  his  sahitation,  and  expressed  the  thoughts 
which  naturally  connected  themselves  with  the  mention  of  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
Redeemer  and  Vindicator  of  his  church,  now  proceeds  to  relate  the  vision,  which 
he  saw  in  a  state  of  prophetic  ecstasy  at  the  isle  of  Patmos.  In  this  state  he  was 
addressed  by  a  loud  voice  behind  hiiu,  like  that  of  a  trumpet,  commanding  him  to 
tcritt  down  what  was  about  to  be  communicated  to  him,  and  address  it  to  tiie 
seven  churches  of  Asia  that  are  named.  Turning  around  in  order  to  discover  the 
personaije  b\'  whom  he  was  thus  addressed,  he  saw  a  glorious  being  in  the  form 
of  man,  surrounded  by  seven  splendid  lights,  clothed  with  ruagnificciit  apparel, 
and  encircled  by  a  radiance  of  his  whole  person  which  was  supernatural.  In  his 
riglit  hand  were  seven  stars,  and  as  it  were  a  two-edged  sword  issuing  from  his 
mouth.  Overpowered  by  the  vision  he  fell  senseless  at  his  feet.  While  in  that 
state,  tiie  right  hand  of  the  Saviour  was  extended  to  raise  him  up,  and  words  of 
encouragement  and  of  kindness  were  addressed  to  him.  He  was  told  what  was 
meant  by  the  seven  stars  and  the  seven  golden  lamps,  and  commissioned  to 
write  what  was  then  disclosed,  and  what  would  afterwards  be  disclosed,  and  send 
it  to  the  churches  which  had  been  named. 

Such  is  the  preparation  for  the  communications  which  John  is  about  to  receive. 
What  was  then  disclosed,  and  which  was  primarily  intended  for  the  seven 
churches,  next  follows,  and  is  contained  in  Epistles  addressed  respectively  to  each 
of  them. 

(9)  1  John,  your  brother,  and  companion  in  the  affliction  and  kingdom  and 
patience  of  Jesus  Christ,  was  in  the  isle  called  Patmos,  because  of  the  word  of 
God  and  on  account  of  the  testimony  of  Jesus. 

That  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  following  visions  were  dis- 
closed, was  John  ;  and  that  the  same  individual  to  whom  the  disclosures 
were  made  wrote  an  account  of  them  ;  is  clear  from  this  verse,  compared 
with  Rev.  1:  3,  4,  and  specially  with  22:  8,  near  the  close  of  the  work. 
The  same  thing  is  apparent  from  the  often  repeated  commands  to  write 
down  what  the  author  saw  and  heard;  e.  g.  in  1:  11,  19.  2:  1,  8,  12, 
18.  3:  1,  7,  14.  10:  4  (command  to  refrain  from  writing).  14:  13. 
19:  9.  21:  5.  All  these  commands  have  at  least  the  appearance  of  dic- 
tating to  one  in  the  act  of  writing,  and  directing  him  now  to  insert  this 
and  now  that,  in  order  that  it  might  not  We  omitted.  In  10:  4,  John 
hears  the  seven  thunders  uttering  their  voice,  and  expressing  some- 
thing which  he  immediately  begins  to  write  down,  when  a  voice  fi*om 

VOL.  II.  9 


I?  V, 

34  Chap.  I.  9. 

heaven  arrests  him,  and  commands  him  to  abstain.  In  14:  13.  19:  9, 
and  21:  5,  sentiments  of  pecuhar  importance  are  specially  required  to 
be  written.  In  regard  to  all  of  the  epistles  to  the  seven  Churches,  the 
command  in  each  case  has  every  appearance  of  an  injunction  to  vrrite 
down,  upon  the  spot,  what  is  dictated  to  John  at  that  time  and  in  that 
place.  At  all  events.  Rev.  10:  4  shows  that  a  process  of  writing  was 
in  operation,  during  the  visions  themselves.  Whatever  may  be  said 
about  the  incongruities  of  this  process  during  an  ecstasy,  or  rather,  a 
series  of  ecf-tasies ;  whatever  of  dithculty  there  may  be  in  supposing 
John  to  be  furnished  with  materials  for  writing  in  such  a  place  as  Pat- 
mos ;  it  cannot  do  away,  or  even  obscure,  the  plain  and  obvious  import 
of  these  passages.  How  can  we  decide  exactly  what  constitutes  the 
physiological  condition  of  a  state  of  prophetic  ecstasy,  how  long  it  may 
continue,  or  what  an  individual  who  is  in  it  may  accomplish,  even 
dui'ing  the  vision  ?  At  all  events,  what  difficulty  is  there  in  supposing, 
that  John  may  have  receded  the  whole  disclosures  made  by  his  visions, 
as  they  w^ere  at  intervals  presented  in  succession  to  his  mind ;  just  as 
w'e  may  suppose  Isaiah,  or  any  other  prophet,  to  have  written  at  inter- 
vals between  visions,  or  even  during  or  under  prophetic  inspiration  or 
influence  ?  A  short  period  would  suffice  for  the  entire  composition  of 
the  Apocalypse,  in  such  a  glowing  state  of  mind.  As  to  materials  for 
writing,  even  if  John  were  prohibited  from  carrying  them  with  him 
into  his  exile,  how  easy  and  natural  Avas  it  for  his  numerous  friends,  at 
Ephesus  and  the  neighboring  coast,  to  supply  them  at  Patmos,  which  is 
but  a  few  hours'  sail  from  Ephesus  !  Besides,  that  this  island  was  en- 
tirely destitute  of  inhabitants,  is  not  certain,  nor  even  probable.  That 
there  were  at  least  fishermen's  huts  in  such  a  place,  one  cannot  well  re- 
frain from  believing.  Such  is  the  case  at  present,  desolate  and  barren 
as  it  is ;  such  was  probably  the  case  when  .John  wrote. 

As  to  the  argument  derived  from  iyev6fj(>]v  ev  nvtv^an,  i.  e.  the  Aor. 
ij'£p6i.tijv,  which,  it  is  said,  indicates  a  former  period,  and  therefore  must 
have  been  penned  after  the  return  of  John  to  Ephesus,  I  catniot  perceive 
that  much  if  any  weight  can  be  justly  attached  to  it;  although  Li'icke 
(Einl.  p.  143)  expressly  says,  that  it  decides  this  point  unstreitig,  i.  e. 
beyond  controversy.  What  other  tense  than  this  of  the  verb  yi'vofuu, 
could  John  employ,  in  a  narration  such  as  this  of  successive  phenomena 
like  those  in  his  vision?  'Ey£v6i^o]v — '■'  Iivas  in  the  spirit  on  the  Lord's 
day,"  declares  the  occurrence  of  an  event  which  preceded  the  commu- 
nications that  were  made  to  him  and  are  related  in  the  sequel.  How 
could  he  relate  these  things  in  order,  and  not  sj)eak  in  the  Praeterite 
tense  (as  he  has  done)  of  those  which  first  happened  ?  Besides,  the 
Eict  that  he  addresses  an  epistle  to  the  church  at  Ephesus,  favours  the 
idea  that  he  was  absent  from  them  when  it  was  wi-itteu.     I  do  not  say 


Chap.  I.  9.  85 

that  it  is  decisive,  but  that  it  increases  the  probability  tliat  the  Apoo:i- 
lypse  was  con)|)osed  while  he  was  at  Patinos.  Last  of  all ;  there  are 
interrn/s  between  the  visions,  noted  in  the  book  itself,  dnrinf»  which  we 
may  very  naturally  suppose  that  to  be  written  which  bad  preceded  ;  e.  ^. 
4:  1  bejriiis  a  new  ecstasy,  with  a  lard  ravra  in  regard  to  the  former 
one  which  concerned  the  seven  churches.  8o  again  in  7:  1.  7:  9.  15: 
5.  IS:  1.  19:  1,  successice  periods  are  distinctly  marked.  "With  equal 
or  with  even  greater  distinctness  does  the  nature  of  the  case,  in  such  a 
transition  as  that  in  12:  1  scq.,  mark  succession  and  intercal.  So  in  20: 
1  seq.  20;  11  seq.  21:  1  seq.  It  is  indeed  most  natural  to  suppose,  that 
visions,  so  overpowering  as  those  of  John  must  have  been,  would  be 
experienced  rather  at  intervals  than  continuously;  and  if  so,  what  valid 
objection  is  there  against  the  supposition,  that  some  of  the  intermediate 
time  was  employed  in  writing  down  what  had  alreadybeen  communicated  ? 
That  the  John  named  in  this  verse  was  the  apostle  John,  I  must  on 
the  whole  believe;  but  not  merely  or  principally  from  what  is  here  said. 
There  is  plaiidy  nothing  inconsistent  with  this  opinion  in  the  matter  of 
the  verse  ;  but  still,  there  is  nothing  hqre  said,  which  might  not  have 
been  predicated  of  some  other  individual.* 

*  It  is  not  mere  cnnjcclnre,  for  the  sake  of  aiding  my  own  views,  wiien  I  sug- 
gest, Ihit  the  bodily  exhaustion  which  attended  such  visions  was  very  great. 
Tiiis  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Ezek.  1;  2^.  3:  14,  15,  Ql,  which  exhibits  the 
state  of  body  and  mind  that  fillowed  the  rapture  of  that  prophet.  See  the  same 
in  Dan.  8:  17,  18  10:  0,  16,  17.  Tliose  passages  exhibit  tiic  manner  in  which  a 
prophet  may  be,  and  nsualh'  was,  affected  during  his  ecstasy;  while  Dan.  7;  Jo, 
28.  8:  27  show  that  severe  indisposition  of" body  and  mind  may  be  consequent  up- 
on prophetic  ecstasies.  In  perfect  accordance  with  these  texts  is  Rev.  1:  17,  sliow- 
iag  that  John  was  wholly  overpowered  by  a  vision  of  Ihn  Saviour.  Comp.  Zech. 
4:  1.  No  other  instance  of  any  vision,  or  series  of  visions,  so  long  as  those  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  all  within  a  short  period  of  time,  can  be  found  in  the  Scriptures; 
and  the  nature  of  the  case,  as  well  as  the  manner  of  the  book  itself  which  marks 
so  ninny  intervals,  serves  to  show  that  a  series  of  successive  visions,  connected  as 
to  their  general  object,  were  not  only  seen,  but  successively  recorded,  by  tlie 
Apocalyptist. 

Lflcke,  in  order  to  avr>id  the  force  of  the  argument  derived  from  the  r.j/lsllrs  to  the 
churches  in  favour  of  the  position  that  John  must  have  been  at  somcforrign  place, 
suggests  th-it  the  epistolary  form  arises  merely  from  the  ordinary  usage  of  the 
apostles  in  addressing  the  churches,  and  amounts  to  nothing  more  than  a  kind  of 
rhetorical  fiction.  1  will  not  say  that  this  is  incongruous  with  the  nature  of  the 
case,  or  very  improbable  in  itself;  for  any  apostle,  or  pastor  of  a  church,  residing 
with  them,  might  address  the  churches,  or  a  particular  church,  in  this  way.  But 
nofliing  obliges  us,  in  this  case,  to  resort  to  such  a  method  of  explanation.  Why 
then  should  we  do  so?  John  is  at  Patmos.  There  he  sees  a  series  of  divine  vi- 
sions. He  undertakes  to  communicate  to  the  churches,  in  whose  welfare  he  feels 
a  peculiar  interest,  an  account  of  them.  He  states  where  he  was  when  tliey  com- 
menced ;  and  relates  successively  the  events  that  occurred  and  the  disclosures 
which  were  made.     What  could  he  do,  more  or  less,  than  use  the  Fraeterite  tense 


■*jr 


36  Chap.  I.  9. 


^dslcfog  v(i(av,  your  brother,  a  frequent  appellation  by  which  Chi*is- 
tians  called  each  other,  as  indicating  not  only  a  strong  feeling  of  friend- 
ship but  also  a  sameness  of  faith;  so  Acts  9:  30.  11:  29.  1  Cor.  5:  11. 
Rev.  12:  10,  et  al.  saepe.  The  apostles  named  themselves  the  brethren 
of  other  Christians,  and  called  others  their  own  brethren.  The  same 
Avas  done  by  private  individuals,  in  respect  to  other  Christians.  So 
nothing  definite  as  to  the  rank  or  office  of  John,  can  with  any  certainty 
be  argued  from'  the  appellation  which  he  here  gives  himself. 

2^vyy.otvo}vog  ,  .  .  /.  XQiatov,  a  co-partner,  a  fellow-partaker  in  the 
affliction.  The  article  before  '&XiW£i  is  not  without  emphasis  here,  in- 
asmuch as  it  seems  to  mark  a  persecution  or  atHiction  then  existing  on 
account  of  the  Christian  religion,  ty  &Xiil<£i  I.  Xqigtov.  It  might  be 
construed  as  meaning  affliction  like  to  that  of  Christ,  for  so  the  Geni- 
tive relation  of  Xqiotov  would  permit  us  to  explain  it ;  but  the  other 
method  of  interpretation  is  most  consonant  with  the  tenor  of  the  book, 
and  clearly  it  is  equally  allowable ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  99. 

The^ai'ticle  also  belongs  (in  sense)  to  ^aoiXeia  and  v7iO(iovri,  but  it  is 
omitted  in  these  last  cases  by  a  veiy  common  usage  ;  N.  Test.  Gramm. 
§  89.  9.  The  relation  of  [^aailei'a  here  to  J.  Xqigzov  is,  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  case,  somewhat  different  from  that  of  {yXiipei.  The  wri- 
ter means  to  say,  that  he  and  those  whom  he  addressed  were  fellow-part- 
ners in  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  or  fellow-citizens  (to  speak  in  a  political 

in  such  a  case  ?  And  how  can  the  use  of  this  tense  prove  that  he  had  migrated 
to  some  other  place,  before  he  wrote  to  the  churches?  And  why  maj'  we  not 
suppose  that  he  actually  designed,  that  the  seven  epistles  should  be  regarded  as 
realities  ?  In  what  way  could  he  instruct  the  churches,  or  publish  his  book  of  vi- 
sions, more  effectually  than  in  this  ? 

We  ought  not  to  admit  artificial  explanations,  when  natural  ones  suffice.  Let 
it  be  that  John  was  an  ajiostle,  or  a  mere  presljyter,  the  nature  of  the  case  (as  to 
the  Jacls  before  us)  is  not  changed.  The  very  numerous  references  in  the  book 
to  the  process  of  writing,  and  more  especially  10:  4,  are  explained  most  easily  and 
naturally  in  the  manner  which  I  have  indicated.  Nothing  decisive  or  very  satis- 
factory can  be  alleged  against  this  explanation.  The  proximity  of  Patmos  to  the 
continent  of  Asia  must  have  ahvays  enabled  the  friends  of  John  to  hold  some 
communication  with  him  during  his  exile.  It  is  not  only  possible,  then,  but  alto- 
gether probable,  that  the  book  was  written  at  Patmos,  as  it  naturally  purports  to 
be. 

The  critical  reader,  who  is  aware  how  many  theories  have  been  spun  out  of  the 
words  under  consideration,  and  how  much  influence  they  have  had  on  the  higher 
criticism  of  the  book,  will  not  regard  with  disapprobation  an  attempt  to  elucidate 
this  matter,  although  it  may  have  occupied  more  time  and  space  than  he  would 
willingly  spare.  Even  Ewald,  in  his  recent  work  on  the  Apocalypse,  says  that 
the  use  of  iytvo/J-t^v  (which  he  names  the  Imperfect,  p.  96),  decides  that  John  had 
returned  from  Palmes  before  he  wrote  his  book ;  which,  he  adds,  also  appears 
from  the  whole  tenor  of  the  book.  Is  not  this  deducing  too  much,  and  deducing 
it  with  a  great  deal  too  much  confidence,  from  the  premises  in  question  ? 


Chap.  L  0.  8f 

way)  of  the  new  spiritual  ein|)ire  or  kingdom  of  Christ;  so  that  he  and 
they  sustained  one  eoninion  relation  to  it. 

Tnoiiori,  lias  been  ditferently  eonstrued  by  different  interpreters.  It 
appe.ars  most  natiu'ally  to  designate  patient  endurance  of  the  -O^XiifJig  al- 
ready mentioned ;  and  in  its  relation  to  J.  Xqkttov  it  is  in  the  same  prc- 
dieainent  as  i^a/uvs,',  inasmuch  :vs  the  sentiment  is,  'patient  endurance 
oh  account  of  Christ,  or  for  Christ's  sake.'  Both  the  writer  and  the 
churches  addressed  had  been  persecuted  in  common,  because  of  their 
Christianity  ;  to  one  and  the  same  kingdom  did  they  in'  fact  belong ; 
patient  endurance  in  suffering  for  Christ's  sake,  they  had  both  exhibited. 
Others  explain  it  thus  :  Patience  like  that  of  Christ  (lleinrichs).  Oth- 
ers still ;  Patient  waiting  (n^^^  or  rbnin )  for  Christ,  or  constancy 
in  expecting  his  coming  (Ewald).  This  latter  sentiment  would  involve 
the  idea,  that  those  addressed  by  John  were  already  possessed  of  such 
views  in  respect  to  Christ's  coming  as  are  exhibited  in  the  Apocalypse ; 
which,  arguing  from  the  maimer  of  address  in  this  book,  does  not  seem 
altogether  probable.  I  prefer  the  other  and  more  simple  explanation  ; 
merely  adding  that  the  Christian  maxim  quoted  by  Paul  (2  Tim.  2:  12)  : 
"  If  we  suffer  we  shall  also  reign  with  him,"  evidently  conveys  in  sub- 
stance the  same  sentiment  as  the  passage  before  us  :  for,  first,  we  have 
the  &).iU'(i; ;  then  the  ^aatlEia ;  and  then,  very  naturally,  in  view  of 
such  a  reward  which  is  to  be  consequent  upon  suffering,  comes  the  vno- 
fiori'j,  the  patient  endurance  of  all  the  evils  that  might  be  inflicted. 

'Lyt'vof^r^v  ii'  .  .  .  Jlur^io).  In  relating  this  occurrence,  as  has  been  re- 
marked above,  a  Praeterite  would  of  course  be  employed  ;  for  the  being 
there  took  place  before  what  is  related  in  the  sequel  happened. 

Patmos  is  a  small  island  some  six  or  eight  miles  in  length,  and  but  little  more 
than  a  mile  in  breadth.  It  is  merely  mentioned  by  the  ancients;  Plin.  Hist.  nat. 
4:  '23.  Strabo,  10:  488.  Eustath.  ad  Dionys.  Perieg.  530.  It  is  now  called  Patino 
or  Patmosa  (not  Palmosa  or  Patmo,  as  Winer  has  it  in  his  Bib.  Lex  ).  It  has  nei- 
ther trees,  nor  rivers,  nor  any  land  for  cultivation,  except  some  little  nooks  among 
the  ledges  of  rocks.  Here  the  banished,  from  the  Roman  provinces  of  Asia,  as  it 
would  seem,  were  sent  in  ancient  times;  as  those  from  the  Grecian  provinces  in 
Europe  were  sent  to  Gyarus  or  Gyara,  which  is  in  the  midst  of  the  Cyclades  and 
of  the  same  character  as  Patmos.  So  Juven.  Sat.  X.  170,  Gijnrae  claiisus  scopit- 
lis,  (respecting  an  exile).  Patmos  has  now  a  village  of  fishermen's  huts  ;  and  so 
had  Gyarus,  in  ancient  times.  jNo  island  among  all  the  Sporades  (Patmos  belongs 
to  that  cluster)  was  so  appropriate  for  a  place  of  exile  as  this;  and  hither  the  text 
represents  John  as  being  sent. 

/Jta  rov  loyov  .  .  .  ^L]6ov.  On  the  meaning  of  this  remarks  have  al- 
ready been  made,  under  Rev.  1:  2.  That  8id,  with  the  nouns  which 
follow,  here  designates  the  cause  or  occasion  of  John's  being  in  Patmos, 
seems  to  be  certain  from  the  use  of  this  same  formula  in  Rev.  G:  9.  12: 
11,  and  specially  20:  4 ;  cases  about  which  there  can  be  no  well-ground- 


38  Chap.  I.  9. 

ed  doubt.  The  natural,  not  to  say  the  necessary,  meaning  of  did  (with 
the  Ace.)  indicates  cause  or  occasion.  Jm  necessarily  designates  here 
something  \\\\\c\\  preceded,  in  the  order  of  time,  the  main  event  that  was 
brought  about,  or,  in  other  words,  the  cause  or  ground  (marked  by  8id) 
of  an  event  must  precede  the  event  itself  which  was  the  consequence. 
Winer  even  insists,  that  did  with  the  Ace,  in  the  New  Testament,  al- 
ways marks  the  reason  or  ground  of  a  thing,  or  else  the  means,  and  nev- 
er an  idtimate  design  or  intention  to  be  accomplished  ;  N.  Test.  Gramm. 
§  53.  c.  ed.  4.  At  all  events,  in  the  Apocalypse,  such  is  the  usage  in 
every  case,  as  it  seems  to  me,  if  the  present  be  excepted.  To  say  then, 
(as  some  have  done),  that  John  went  to  Patmos  in  order  to  preach  there, 
or  in  order  to  write  the  Apocalypse,  is  virtually  renouncing  the  ascer- 
tained meaning  of  language  in  such  cases,  and  cannot  therefore  have  any 
good  claim  to  credit.  The  Apocalypse  has  explained  itself  in  regard  to 
the  manner  in  which  this  phraseology  is  employed  and  is  to  be  interpret- 
ed ;  as  the  references  above  most  clearly  show.  It  was,  then,  because 
John  had  been  a  preacher  of  the  word  of  God,  and  had  proclaimed  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  he  was  exiled  to  Patmos.  In  fact,  the 
suggestion  that  John  went  to  Patmos  in  order  to  lorite  the  Apoca- 
lypse, is  so  improbable  upon  the  very  face  of  it,  as  not  to  deserve  any 
serious  refutation. 

Eichhorn  (Einl.  ins  N.  Test.  II.  p.  367),  and  Bleek  (Schleiermach., 
etc.,  Zeitschrift.  II.  p.  151),  have  thrown  out  the  suggestion,  that  John 
states  his  being  at  Patmos  only  as  a  visionary  matter,  i.  e.  he  was  trans- 
ported there  merely  in  prophetic  ecstasy ;  and  there,  because  it  was  an 
a})propriate  place  for  visions  ;  and  we  are  referred  to  Ezek.  3:  14,  15. 
8:  3.  40:  2.  Dan.  8:  2,  and  the  like,  for  examples  of  a  similar  nature. 
But  such  examples  these  are  not ;  for  these  prophets  expressly  state, 
that  they  were  brought  to  this  place  or  to  that,  in  vision,  or  hy  the  poiver 
of  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  therefore  leave  no  room  for  misapprehension. 
Yet  John,  in  the  case  before  us,  has  not  at  all  suggested  the  idea,  that 
he  was  in  the  Spirit  before  he  came  to  Patmos,  but  simply  states  that 
he  was  residing  there  when  the  Spirit  came  upon  him.  Why  should 
we  confound  cases  so  entirely  discrepant  ?  No  one  can  well  mistake 
Ezekiel  or  Daniel ;  yet  it  would  seem  that  the  whole  Christian  world 
must  have  mistaken  John,  except  Eichhorn,  Bleek,  and  the  very  few 
who  accede  to  their  interpretation.  At  least,  if  the  views  of  these  cri- 
tics are  correct,  such  is  the  case.  Were  it  a  matter  which  concerned  an 
obscure  or  difficult  text  of  Scripture,  such  a  mistake  might  have  taken 
place.  But  in  so  plain  a  matter  as  the  present  apparently  is,  it  would 
seem  to  be  at  least  xi  dionov.  If  we  must  suppose  a  fiction  in  this 
case,  is  it  not  strange  that  John  did  not  prefer  Sinai,  or  Carmel,  or  Ta- 
bor, (all  sacred  places),  as  the  scene.     The  Apocalyptist,  we  cannot 


Chap.  I.  10.  89 

reasonably  doulit  it,  means  to  be  vnderstood  as  stating  a  fact ;  and  whe- 
tlior  it  be  ciupposi'il  that  this  lact  took  |)la('e  under  Nero,  or  under  Donii- 
tian,  both  ot"  whom  persecuted  and  banished  Christians,  everything 
wears  the  air  of  phvin  probability.  "Why  should  the  author,  who  has 
not  concealed  his  name,  conceal  the  pl((ce  where  he  was  when  his  ec- 
stasy came  upon  him  ?  And  why  should  not  the  statement  be  credited 
on  the  sjinie  ground  that  we  credit  that  of  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  1:  2),  who 
says  that  he  wa?  by  the  river  Chebar,  when  the  first  vision  of  God  was 
disclosed  to  hiiH?  Liicke  (Einl.  p.  242),  and  Ewald  (Comm.  p.  9G), 
admit  the  rea/iti/ o(  tlie  writer's  residence  at  Patmos ;  as  do  nearly  all 
the  older  critics. 

(ID)  ]  was  in  the  spirit  on  the  Lord's  day  ;  and  I  heard  behind  me  a  loud  voice, 
as  of  a  trumpet. 

'r.y^ro(iiiv  h  nvivaun  means  that  John  was  xinder  spiritual injiuence  ; 
and  in  a  case  like  the  present,  that  he  was  under  the  special  and  extra- 
ordinary influence  of  the  Spirit;  for  such  is  the  usage  of  the  Scriptures 
in  respect  to  this  [thraseology.  The  same  idea  is  elsewhere  expressed, 
by  being  iv  t-MTuaei,  Acts  10:  10.  11:  5.  22:  17,  i.  e.  transported  as  it 
were  out  of  one's  self,  put  into  a  condition  different  from  that  which  be- 
longs to  the  ordinary  development  of  one's  own  powers  and  faculties. 
Ezekiel  names  this  state  a  seeing  of  the  visions  of  God,  i.  e.  seeing  vi- 
sions disclosed  by  divine  influence,  Ezek.  1:  1.  8:  3.  40:  2.  Such  vi- 
sions are  habitually  ascribed  by  the  prophets  to  divine  influence ;  Jer. 
24:  1.  Ezek.  11:  25.  Amos  7:  1,  4,7.  8:  1.  Zech.  3:  1.  Specially 
are  such  visions  caused  by  the  Spirit  of  God ;  or  by  the  hand  of  the 
Lord  (i.  e.  divincpower  or  influence),  which  is  an  equivalent  expres- 
sion ;  Ezek.  1:  3.  8:  1.  37:  1.  40:  1.  In  Ezek.  11:  24,  theprophet 
speaks  of  being  brought  in  vision  into  the  land  of  Chaldca  a'^rf'N;  H'lia , 
i.  e.  by  the  Spirit  of  God.  Paul,  in  2  Cor.  12:  1 — 4,  has  given  a  vivid 
descnption  of  such  a  state  of  supernatural  ecstasy.  That  John  means 
to  assert,  in  the  case  before  us,  that  he  was  in  a  pneumatic  state,  i.  e. 
under  peculiar  and  extraordinary  divine  influence,  seems  at  least  to  be 
philologically  certain  ;  and  that  the  nature  of  the  disclosures,  which  follow 
throughout  the  book,  import  the  same  thing,  is  equally  plain.  Our  idiom 
obliges  us  to  translate  in  the  spirit ;  but  the  Greek  employs  no  article  and 
is  therefore  more  exactly  represented  by  the  phrase  in  a  pneumatic  state. 

'Ev  7g  xfpfaxjj  ijiitQfi,  on  the  Lord's  day  ;  elsewhere  called  ju/a  aa^^d- 
Tojr,  the  first  of  the  week.  Acts  20:  7.  1  Cor.  IG:  2.  These  two  passages 
show,  that  this  first  day  was  one  of  public  social  worship  among  Clnis- 
tians,  in  the  ai>ostolic  age.  The  appellation,  Lord's  day,  occurs  nowhere 
in  the  New  Testament,  save  in  the  passage  before  us.  But  it  occurs 
twice  in  the  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  ^klaguesians  (about  A.  D.  101),  who 


40  Chap.  I.  10. 

calls  the  Lord's  day,  the  queen  and  prince  of  all  days.  Chrysostom  (on 
Ps.  119)  says:  "It  was  called  the  Lord's  day,  because  the  Lord  arose 
from  the  dead  on  this  day."  Whether  such  was  the  case,  or  whether 
it  was  so  named  because  the  Lord  was  worshipped  on  that  day  by  Chris- 
tians, is  of  no  moment  as  to  the  fact  itself  that  such  a  day  was  set  apart 
and  specially  regarded  by  the  primitive  Christians.  Later  fathers  make  a 
marked  distinction  between  the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's  day  ;  meaning  by 
the  former,  the  Jewish  seventh-day  sabbath,  by  the  latter,  the  first  day  of 
the  week  kept  as  holy  by  Christians.  So  Theodoret  (Fab.  Haeret.  IL 
1),  speaking  of  the  Ebionites,  says  :  "■  They  keep  the  Sabbath  according 
to  the  Jewish  law,  and  sanctify  the  Lord's  day  in  like  manner  as  we 
do."  A  party  in  the  Christian  church  adhered  to  this  usage  so  long  and 
so  tenaciously,  that  finally  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (about  A.  D.  350) 
made  a  decree,  that  '  Christians  should  no  longer  keep  the  seventh  day 
by  refraining  from  labour ;'  see  Bingham's  Ecc.  Antiq.  V.  p.  286. 
Viewed  in  this  light,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  what  Paul  says  (Rom.  14:  5. 
Gal.  4:  10.  Col.  2:  16)  concerning  the  unimportance  of  observing  spe- 
cial days,  i.  e.  new  moons  and  sabbaths,  is  said  of  the  Jewish  days  of 
this  nature ;  and  so  the  context  in  all  these  places  plainly  indicates,  for 
he  is  discussing  matters  insisted  on  by  Judaizers.  No  Christian,  as  he 
avers,  is  bound  to  observe  the  Jewish  holidays  ;  although  the  man  who 
does  observe  them  should  not  be  dealt  hardly  with  on  this  account. 
TV  hat  he  thus  says,  has  of  course  no  application  to  the  proper  Lord's 
day.* 

*  As  to  the  question,  whether  Christians  were  accustomed  to  observe  the  Lord's 
day  with  any  good  degree  of  strictness,  I  know  of  no  testimony  more  credible,  or 
more  to  the  purpose,  than  that  of  Euseb.  Comm.  on  Ps.  21:  30  (22:  29  in  our  En- 
glish version) ;  Ps.  45:  6  (46:  5)  ;  I^sTSH;  17  (59:  16)  ;  and  above  all  (which  is  the 
locus  dussicus)  on  Ps.  xci.  (xcii.).  Here  he  says:  "  The  Word  [Christ],  by  the 
new  covenant,  translated  and  transfei-red  the  feast  of  the  Sabbath  to  the  morning 
light,  and  gave  us  the  symbol  of  true  rest,  viz.  the  saving  Lord's  day,  the  first  [day] 
of  the  light,  in  which  the  Saviour  .  .  .  obtained  the  victory  over  death,  etc.  .  .  . 
On  this  day,  which  is  the  first  [day]  of  the  light  and  of  the  true  Sun,  we  assem- 
ble, after  an  interval  of  six  days,  and  celebrate  holy  and  spiritual  Subbatk  ;  even 
all  nations  [assemble]  redeemed  by  him  throughout  the  world,  and  do  those  things 
according  to  the  spiritual  law,  which  were  decreed  for  the  priests  to  do  on  the 
Sabbath.  .  .  .  Jill  things  ichalever  that  it  was  duty  to  do  on  the  Sabbath  [i.  e.  the 
Jewish  seventh  day],  these  ice  have  transferred  to  the  Lord's  day,  as  more  appro- 
priately belonging  to  it,  because  it  has  a  precedence,  and  is  first  in  rank,  and 
more  honourable  than  the  .Teicish  Sabbath.  ...  It  is  delivered  to  us  [Tra^aSiSorat, 
it  is  handed  down  by  tradition],  that  ice  should  meet  together  on  this  day ;  and  it  is 
ordered  that  we  should  do  those  things  announced  in  this  Psalm,"  [Ps.  xcii.]. 
Comp.  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  L  c.  89.  Why  this  decisive  passage,  as  to  the  usages 
of  early  Christians,  should  have  been  hitherto  overlooked  by  commentators  and 
theoloo-lans,  (so  far  as  I  know,  such  has  been  the  fact),  one  might  find  it  dilficult 
to  say.     it  certainly  testifies  strongly  against  the  usages,  now  unhappily  so  com- 


Chaj».  I.  11.  41 

It  should  be  noticed,  perhaps,  that  some  commentators  (e.  p;.  Eich- 
liorn)  rvjjard  -/.vnurAtj  I'mi-'cfft  here  as  desip;natiniT  the  paschal  flai/,  on  the 
cveninj?  of  which  the  early  Christians  were  wont  to  assemble,  and  wait 
and  worship  nntil  very  late,  with  the  hope  and  expectation  of  Christ's 
coming ;  see  Jerome  on  Matt.  xxiv.  Bnt  this  usa<:i^e  is  plainly  one  of 
later  ori<j:in  ;  for  no  ear/i/  writing  mentions  this  day  as  having  any  special 
preeminence. 

Meyuli^i;  applied  to  t'oice,  of  course  means  loud.  —  cot,"  (julniyyog 
heightens  the  description.  It  was  not  merely  an  ordinary  loud  human 
voice,  but  loud  as  that  of  a  trumpet.  It  is  almost  needless  to  remark, 
tliut  the  loudness  only  is  the  point  of  comparison  here,  not  the  quality 
of  the  trumpet's  voice,  much  less  the  inarticulate  nature  of  it ;  as  the 
sequel  shows. — y/tyovai;','  in  grammatical  construction  agrees  with  odX- 
niyyo-;.  Nor  is  the  meaning  ditlicult ;  for  a  loud  voice  as  of  a  trumpet 
speaking,  is  a  voice  speaking  trumpet-like.  P^ichhorn  (as  usual)  has 
here  corrected  the  author's  Greek,  and  substituted  Xtyovaav.  It  does 
not  need  the  critic's  aid.  One  reason  why  a  trumpet  is  here  designated 
as  the  object  of  comparison,  is  the  frequent  use  made  of  this  instrument 
on  occasions  of  great  moment;  see  in  Ex.  19;  19.  20:  18.  Ps.  47:  5. 
Zech.  9:  14.  1  Cor.  lo:  52.   1  Thess.  4:  16. 

(11)  Saying :  What  thou  secst  write  in  a  book,  and  send  to  the  seven  churches, 
to  Ephesus,  and  to  Smyrna,  and  to  Pergaiiuis,  and  to  Thyatira,  and  to  Sardis, 
and  to  Philadelphia,  and  to  Laodicea. 

"0  ^/.i'nei'i'  does  not  mean  simply,  what  thou  at  the  present  moment 
seest ;  for  the  present  tense,  both  participle  and  verb,  is  often  employed 
in  a  diffusive  sense  (if  I  may  so  speak),  and  comprehends  what  is  to 
come,  as  being  connected  with  the  present.  So  we  may  here  translate  : 
Quod  visurus  es  ;  for  so  the  sense  of  the  passage,  in  connection  with  the 
sequel,  clearly  demands  it  to  be  understood. 

£(V  i)ip.tor — we  say  copied  into  a  book,  but  loritten  ix  a  hook  ;  and 
in  accordance  with  the  latter  phrase,  is  the  usual  idiom  of  the  Greek 
ysyoaitia'iop  iv  t(p  ^i^h'o).  But  in  John  8:  6,  8,  (if  the  genuineness  be 
allowed),  we  have  two  cases  of  i'ynaiftv  iiV ;  showing  at  least,  a  resem- 
blance in  minutiae  between  the  Gospel  and  the  Apocalypse,  for  the 
idiom  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  New^  Testament.  Inscribe  in  librutn, 
we  might  translate  the  phrase,  i.  e.  engrave  it  upon  a  roll  or  parchment. 

mon  on  and  over  the  continent  of  Kurope,  in  respect  to  the  observance  of  tiie 
Lord's  day. 

I  have  only  to  add,  that  such  a  day,  commemorative  of  the  resurrection  of 
Clirist  from  the  dead,  and  set  apart  for  holy  spiritual  exercises,  was  peculiarly  ap- 
propriate to  the  visions  of  God.  The  Saviour  apj)ears  to  John  in  his  glory,  as 
risen  from  the  dead,  (comp.  Rev.  1;  5, 18).  The  day  and  the  vision  both  proclaim 
the  fact  of  his  resurrection. 

VOL.  II.  6 


42  Chap.  I.  11. 

— After  Xk'yovcya,  at  the  beginning  of  the  verse ,  the  vulgate  text  inserts 
iy(6  ti'iAt  TO  yl  xai  to  ii,  o  TTQoJzng  •auI  o  iayaroii  •  xai ;  which,  for  good 
reason,  has  been  omitted  in  the  critical  editions.  The  weight  of  au- 
thority is  plainly  against  it. 

T(ug  snroc  hy-hioiun; — The  vulgate  here  omits  tntd-,  as  Evvald 
thinks,  with  good  reason.  But  he  has  founded  his  argument  on  the  sup- 
position, that  John  wrote  the  Apocalypse  for  all  the  churches  in  Asia. 
Yet,  while  I  allow  the  correctness  of  such  a  supposition  in  a  qualified 
sense,  I  still  do  not  see  why  he  might  not  dedicate  the  whole  work  to 
the  seven  churches,  and  by  sending  it  to  them,  publish  it  in  this  way  to 
the  world.  The  sending  it  to  the  seven  churches  does  not  denote  that 
the  book  was  not  a  matter  of  general  concern,  but  only  that  some  things 
in  it  were  speciality  appropriate  to  them  ;  and  this  consists  well  with  the 
admission  of  mzu  into  the  text.  Again,  the  vulgate  inserts  rai'i  h  Jlaia 
after  l-A'Ahjaiuig,  which  is  not  sustained  by  the  Codices,  and  is  not  here 
necessary  to  the  sense. 

Ephesus  was  the  capital  of  proconsular  Asia,  and  was  then  the 
largest  and  most  magnificent  city  in  all  that  region.  It  lay  upon  the 
river  Cayster,  at  the  head  of  a  large  bay,  and  about  half-way  between 
Miletus  on  the  south  and  Smyrna  on  the  north.  In  ancient  times  it  had 
an  immense  trade ;  and  the  splendid  temple  of  Diana  there  (Acts  19: 
34 — 36)  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  burnt  down  by 
Herostratus  ;  but  soon  it  was  still  more  superbly  rebuilt.  Many  Jews 
resided  there ;  and  there  Paul  laboured  more  than  two  years,  Acts  18: 
18  seq.  19:  10  seq.  A  great  and  flourishing  church  was  founded  there 
by  this  apostle  ;  and  with  that  church  the  apostle  John,  according  to  the 
voice  of  all  antiquity,  had  a  most  intimate  connection.  At  Ephesus,  it 
would  seem,  was  his  home,  after  he  left  Palestine.  There  are,  at  the 
present  time,  but  some  half  a  dozen  miserable  huts  on  the  spot  of  the 
ancient  city,  belonging  to  squalid  Greek  peasants  ;  and  the  Turks  name 
the  place  Ayasaluc.  Such  is  the  end  of  the  most  strenuous  efforts  of 
man  to  establish  and  render  perpetual  worldly  splendour  and  magnifi- 
cence. It  is  even  difRcult  now  to  ascertain  with  certainty,  where  the 
temple  of  Diana  stood ;  a  building  425  feet  long,  200  broad,  70  feet 
high,  and  with  127  marble  pillars.  The  candlestick  has  indeed  been 
removed  out  of  its  place  (Rev.  2:  5),  and  all  the  glory  of  the  splendid 
metropolis  extinguished. 

Smyrna  lies  at  the  head  of  a  bay  that  puts  far  up  into  the  main  land, 
and  is  a  very  ancient  city,  situated  near  the  river  Meles,  and  one  of  the 
reputed  birth  places  of  Homer,  thence  sometimes  named  Melesigenes. 
Its  excellent  harbour  has  rendered  it,  from  time  immemorial,  one  of  the 
most  commercial  places  in  hither  Asia.  Its  population  is  now  variously 
estimated,  from  120,000  to  160,000,  consisting  of  Greeks,  Turks,  Ar- 


-i 

Chap.  I.  11.  43 

mcnians,  Jew?,  and  Europeans.  Tlie  rigid  system  of  supervision  and 
oppression,  established  by  the  Tnrks,  has  almost  extinguished  the  de- 
velopment of  any  religion  there  exeept  the  Mohammedan.  The  Turk- 
ish name  of  the  place  is  Ismir,  i.  e.  the  old  name  abridged. 

PK.RGAMrs  is  in  the  southern  part  of  Mysia  ;  whieh  also  constituted  a 
part  of  ^ If ()/?'«,  so  named  from  the  settlement  of  the  Aeolian  Greeks 
there  after  the  fall  of  Troy.  It  was  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Caicus, 
and  at  the  time  when  the  Apocalypse  was  written  was  the  metropolis 
of  that  ]iart  of  Asia  which  was  held  by  the  Romans.  When  Antiocluis 
the  Great,  king  of  Syria,  was  defeated  by  the  Komish  power  in  Asia, 
Eumenes,  a  king  of  the  region  in  and  around  Pergamus,  (in  which  city 
he  dwelt),  aided  them  in  their  contest,  and  was  rewarded  by  them  with 
an  enlargement  of  his  dominions.  Here  Pvumenes  established  a  famous 
library,  as  a  kind  of  rival  to  that  of  Ptolemy  at  Alexandrisx.  It  consis- 
ted of  some  200,000  vohmies.  The  last  of  the  Atlalian  race  of  kings 
(Attains  III.),  being  childless,  left  this  kingdom,  by  his  last  will,  to  the 
Romans  (B.  C.  133).  It  is  an  old  tradition,  that  when  Ptolemy  refused 
Eumenes  the  privilege  o^  Q\\^ov\'m^  papyrus  from  Egypt  for  the  use  of 
his  libi-ary,  the  latter  invented  parchment  (called  7Zt(ty«.iujv/'j  from  the 
place  of  its  invention)  as  a  substitute.  Pompey  (some  sixty  years 
B.  C.)  gave  the  whole  of  the  library  at  Pergamus  to  Cleopatra  of  Egypt, 
and  it  was  transported  thither,  and  perished  with  the  library  at  Alexan- 
dria, by  order  of  the  Mohammedan  Caliph.  The  kingdom  of  whieh 
Pergamus  was  the  capital,  lasted  about  152  years.  This  city  is  still  a 
considerable  one,  inhabited  principally  by  Turks,  but  containing  also 
about  3000  nominal  Christians.     Its  present  name  is  Pcrrjamo. 

Thyatira  lies  near  the  borders  of  Lydia  and  Mysia,  but  more  usually 
it  is  reckoned  to  the  former.  It  is  about  a  day's  journey  south  of  Perga- 
mus, and  about  the  same  distance  east  of  Elaea  on  the  sea-coast.  It  is 
now  called  Akhisar  ("\Vhite  Castle),  and  contains  a  population  of  nearly 
30,000,  of  whom  3000  are  said  to  be  nominal  Christians.  In  the  Apoc- 
alyi>se  the  name  is  neuter  plural  (xivdi^iija),  and  so  in  many  Greek 
writers  ;  but  the  Latins  and  some  of  the  Greeks  employed  the  feminine 
singular  to  designate  it.  That  it  was  a  considerable  place  in  the  time 
of  John,  there  can  be  no  room  to  doubt. 

Sardis  (plur.  2.'uodti',-,  sometimes  —andi^'  in  Greek  authors),  now 
Surf,  was  the  capital  of  Lydia,  and  stood  at  the  foot  of  mount  Tmolus, 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Pactolus  famous  for  it  golden  sands.  Here  the 
celebrated  Croesus  lived  and  reigned,  who  was  proverbially  so  rich,  and 
who  was  captured  by  Cyrus  A.  C  548.  It  was  a  very  large  and  rich 
city  under  the  Romans.  In  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  however,  it  suffered 
greallj'  by  an  eaithquake ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  speedily  rebuilt. 
Tiberius   himself  contributed  liberally  for  this  purpose.     It  is  now  a 


44  Chap.  L  11. 

scene  of  ruins,  there  being  only  a  few  mud  huts  there,  inhabited  by 
Turks  and  Greeks.* 

Philadelphia  is  south-east  of  Sardis  in  Lydia,  and  on  the  small 
river  Cogamus.  Once  it  was  a  large  and  powerful  city.  At  the  time 
when  the  Ottomans  overran  all  the  region  around,  this  city  held  out  for 
more  than  eighty  years  against  them.  Finally  Bajazet  obliged  it  to  yield. 
It  is  still  a  considerable  place ;  and  there  are  more  than  twenty  church- 
es here,  although  not  Christians  enough  now  to  fill  more  than  two  or  three 
of  them.  A  recent  traveller  (Emerson  ut  supra)  gives  a  glowing  account 
of  the  scenery  in  and  around  the  city.  It  is  at  present  called  Allah 
Shehr. 

Laodicea,  in  the  south-west  part  of  Phrygia,  at  a  small  distance 
from  Colossae  and  Hierapolis,  is  situated  near  the  junction  of  the  two 
small  rivers  Asopus  and  Caprus  (which  soon  fall  into  the  Lycus),  on  a 
plain  washed  at  its  edges  by  each.     The  ruins  now  extant  of  many 

*  A  recent  traveller,  who  lodged  there  for  a  night,  has  given  a  description  of 
the  scene  by  moonlight  at  a  midnight  hour,  which  I  cannot  forbear  to  transcribe. 
"  Every  object  was  as  distinct  as  in  a  northern  twilight;  the  snowy  summit  of 
the  mountain  [Tmolus],  the  long  sweep  of  the  valley,  and  the  flashing  current  of  the 
river  [Pactolus].  1  strolled  along  towards  the  banks  of  the  Pactolus,  and  seated 
myself  by  the  side  of  the  half  exhausted  stream. 

"  There  are  iew  individuals,  who  cannot  trace  on  the  map  of  their  memory  some 
moments  of  overpowering  emotion,  and  some  scene,  which,  once  dwelt  upon,  has 
become  its  own  painter,  and  left  behind  it  a  memorial  that  time  could  not  efface. 
I  can  readily  sympathize  with  the  feelings  of  him  who  wept  at  the  base  of  the  py- 
ramids;  nor  were  my  own  less  powerful,  on  that  night,  when  1  sat  beneath  the 
sky  of  Asia  to  gaze  upon  the  ruins  of  Sardis,  from  the  banks  of  the  golden  sanded 
Pactolus.  Beside  me  were  the  cliffs  of  the  Acropolis,  which,  centuries  before,  the 
hardy  Median  scaled,  while  leading  on  the  conquering  Persians,  whose  tents  had 
covered  the  very  spot  on  which  I  was  reclining.  Before  me  weie  the  vestiges  of 
what  had  been  the  palace  of  the  gorgeous  Croesus;  within  its  walls  were  once 
congregated  the  wisest  of  mankind,  Thales,  Cleobulus,  and  Solon.  It  was  here 
that  the  wretched  father  mourned  alone  the  mangled  corse  of  his  beloved  Atys  ; 
it  was  here  that  the  same  humiliated  monarch  wept  at  the  feet  of  the  Persian  boy, 
who  wrung  from  him  his  kingdom.  Far  in  the  distance  were  the  gigantic  tumuli 
of  the  Lydian  monarchs,  Candaules,  Halyattys,  and  Gyges;  and  around  them 
were  spread  those  very  plains,  once  trodden  by  the  countless  hosts  of  Xer.xes  when 
hurraying  on  to  find  a  sepulchre  at  Marathon. 

"There  were  more  varied  and  more  vivid  remembrances  associated  with  the  siorht 
of  Sardis,  than  could  possibly  be  attached  to  any  other  spot  of  earth;  but  all  were 
mingled  with  a  feeling  of  disgust  at  the  littleness  of  human  glory;  all— all  had 
passed  away  !  There  were  before  me  the  fanes  of  a  dead  religion,  the  tombs  of 
forgotten  monarchs,  and  the  palm-tree  that  waved  in  the  banquet-hall  of  kings  ; 
while  the  feeling  of  desolation  was  doubly  heightened  by  the  calm  sweet  sky 
above  me,  which,  in  its  unfading  brightness,  shone  as  purely  now  as  when  it 
beamed  upon  the  golden  dreams  of  Croesus." — Emerson's  Letters  from  the  Aege- 
an, p.  113  seq. 


Chap.  I.  12.  4% 

theatres,  temples,  etc.,  show  thai  it  was  once- a  large  city.     The  whole 
rising  ground  on   which   the   city  stood,  is   one  vast  tumulus  of  ruins, 
abandoned  entirely  to  the  owl  and  the  fox.     This  city  was  so  situated, 
as  to  become  the  battle-ground  of  contending  parties  in   Asia  Minor, 
fii-st  under  the  Romans,  and  then  under  the   Tiu-ks.     It  has  doubtless 
suffered  also  from  earthciuakes.     For  centuries,  we  know  not  how  many, 
it  has  been  a  perfect  mass  of  ruins.     In   its  neighl)ourhood  is  a  village 
named  Eski-hissm\  which  has  been  built  up  from  its  ruins,  and  contains 
some  fifty  or  sixty  people,  among  whom,  (on  the  visit  of  a  recent 
traveller  there),  there  were  but  two   nominal  Christians.     "  The  name 
of  Christianity,"  says  Emerson  (ut  sup.  p.  101),  "is  forgotten,  and  the 
only  sounds  that  disturb  the  silence  of  its  desertion,  are  the  tones  of  the 
Muezzin,  whose  voice  from  the  distant  village   [Eski-hissar]   proclaims 
the  ascendancy  of  Mohammed.     Laodicea  is  even  more  solitary  than 
Ephesus  ;  for  the  latter  has  the  prospect  of  the  rolling  sea,  or  of  a 
whitening  sail,  to  enliven  its  decay  ;  wdiile  the  former  sits  in  widowed 
loneliness,  its  walls  are  grass-grown,  its  temples  desolate,  its  very  name 
has  perished."     A  thunder  storm  gathered  on  the  mountains  at  a  dis- 
tance, while  this  traveller  was  examining  the  ruins  of  Laodicea.     He 
retreated  to  Eski-hissar  and  waited  until  the  fury  of  the  storm  was 
abated,  but  set  olF  on  his  journey  again  before  it  had  entirely  ceased  to 
blow  and  to  rain.     "We  preferred,"  says  he  (p.  102),  "hastening  on, 
to  a  farther  delay  in  that  melancholy  spot,  where  everything  Avhispered 
desolation,  and  where  the  very  wind  that  swept  impetuously  through 
the  valley,  sounded  like  the  fiendish  laugh  of  time  exulting  over  the 
destruction  of  man  and  his  proudest  monuments." 

Such  has  been  and  are  the  situation  and  circumstances  of  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia,  who  are  addressed  by  the  Apocalyptist.  I  have 
already  remarked,  that  John  was  probably  acquainted  with  other 
churches  in  this  region  besides  those  named.  The  particular  reason 
why  he  addresses  but  seven  churches,  and  no  more,  I  have  also  endea- 
voured to  give  in  another  place;  Vol.  I.  §  13.  p.  219  seq.  The  exe-' 
getical  problems  which  have  been  raised  in  regard  to  this  matter  of 
seven,  by  Vitringa  and  others,  are  also  examined  in  the  same  section  to 
which  the  reader  has  just  been  referred. 

(Iti)  And  1  turned  to  see  the  voice  which  spake  with  me;  and  wlien  I  had 
turned,  1  beheld  seven  golden  lamps; 

BXfTTFtv  means  primarily  to  see  with  one's  eyes  objects  visible  to  the 
sense  of  sight.  But  it  is  also  employed  to  denote  the  perception  or 
notice  of  the  mind;  and  then  it  means,  as  here,  to  discern,  to  descry,  to 
perceive,  to  observe.  »So  in  Matt.  15:  31.  John  5:  19.  2  Cor.  12:  6. 
Bom.  7:  23.  Heb.  10:  25  al. 


46  Chap.  L  13. 

'EXdXfi  fiez  ipiov,  so,  with  the  Genitive,  wlien  a  writer  means  to  rep- 
resent an  address  as  it  were  dialogistically,  colloquens ;  but  with  the 
Dative  following,  when  an  address  is  made  in  the  way  of  discourse  ad- 
dressed to  an  assembly ;  yet  sometimes  with  TiQog  and  the  Accusative, 
in  this  latter  way. 

Ema  i.v'/(_via>i,  seven  lamps,  i.  e.  seven  splendid  radiant  lights.  In  v. 
20  these  are  said  to  be  symbols  of  the  seven  (Asiatic)  churches.  The 
imagery  is  neither  novel  nor  strange.  In  Dan.  8:  10,  the  Jewish  wor- 
shippers are  named  the  host  of  heaven,  and  Antiochus  is  represented  as 
casting  down  this  host,  and  also  some  of  the  stars,  i.  e.  some  who  were 
conspicuous  among  this  host,  viz.  the  priests  officiating  in  the  temple. 
So  in  Rev.  1:  20,  the  stars  in  the  hand  of  the  Saviour  are  said  to  be  the 
(iyytXoi  of  the  churches.  In  our  text,  the  imagery  of  lamps  is  specifi- 
cally different  from  that  in  Daniel,  but  generically  it  is  the  same,  viz. 
that  of  a  brightly  shining  light.  Paul,  speaking  of  the  Philippian 
Christians,  says  :  Among  whom  [the  wicked],  i.  e.  surrounded  by  whom, 
ye  shine  as  (fcoGzijOFi;  in  the  world,  Phil.  2:  15.  Jesus  says  of  himself: 
"  I  am  the  light  of  the  world,"  John  8:  12  ;  and  he  says  of  his  disciples  : 
"Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world,"  Matt.  5:  14.  In  Rev.  2:  28  the^ 
Saviour  says  respecting  him  Avho  is  victorious  in  the  Christian  contest : 
"  I  will  give  him  the  morning  star,"  i.  e.  I  will  make  him  all  bright  and 
glorious,  like  the  morning  star.  Such  is  the  imagery  common  in  the 
Old  Testament  and  in  the  New  ;  so  that  the  sources  of  it  in  the  verse 
before  us  are  obvious.  But  the  writer  doubtless  had  in  his  mind  the 
passage  in  Zech.  4:  2,  where  the  prophet  sees  a  candelabra  of  gold,  M'ith 
seven  lamps  thereon  ;  which  plainly  indicate,  as  there  represented,  that 
the  light  of  the  temple,  i.  e.  its  ritual  and  services,  shall  be  complete, 
and  not  remain  in  the  unfinished  and  imperfect  state  in  which  it  then 
was.  Here  the  application  is  different ;  but  the  costume  resembles  that 
of  Zechariah. 

(13)  And  in  the  midst  of  the  seven  lamps,  one  like  to  a  son  of  man,  clothed 
with  a  long  robe,  and  girt  about  the  breast  with  a  golden  girdle. 

'Ev  fitGO)  [To;ra)]  indicates  that  he  was  in  a  position,  where  he  Avas 
surrounded  by  the  seven  lights. — "OiioiQv  vUp  clvi^QOdTiov,  one  like  to  a 
son  of  man,  i.  e.  one  having  a  human  form,  like  that  of  man.  It  would 
be  incongruous  to  say :  One  like  to  the  Son  of  Man ;  for,  inasmuch  as 
he  who  now  makes  his  appearance  is  himself  the  Son  of  Man,  i.  e.  the 
Messiah,  so  it  would  be  merely  saying  that  he  was  like  himself.  This 
is,  to  say  the  least,  a  very  improbable  affirmation  for  such  a  writer  as 
John,  and  in  such  a  connection  as  the  present.  Ewald,  however,  ren-- 
ders  the  phrase  :  Similis  aliquis  homi7ii  ;  and  he  understands  by  it  the 
Son  of  Man  as  designated  in  Daniel  7:  13.     But  how  the  article  could 


Chap.  I.  13.  4f 

be  omitted  in  such  a  case  of  well  known  and  specific  reference  as  this 
(so  understood)  would  be,  it  is  dilficult  to  explain.  There  can  be  no 
good  ground  to  doubt,  that  the  appellation  Son  of  Man,  so  often  applied 
by  the  Saviour  to  himself,  (never  applied  to  him  but  once  by  any  of  his 
disciples,  Acts  7:  oG),  was  grounded  upon  Dan.  7:  13,  where  it  is  plain- 
ly given  to  the  expected  ^Messiah,  and  has  reference  to  the  human  nature 
which  he  would  assume  ;  comp.  John  1:  14.  Rom.  9:  5.  1:  3.  1  Tim.  3: 
16.  The  Saviour  appears  to  have  habitually  employed  this  designation 
of  himself  in  the  way  of  humility,  {irantlvaiaEv  iuvTov,  Phil.  2:  8)  ;  and 
his  disei|)lt'S  appear  to  have  refrained  from  emidoying  it  through  fear  of 
deiiradinsi;  him  bv  it,  inasmuch  a.s  cnx  ",2  and  the   Chaldee    X^'3  "3  were 

O  O  .-  '  T    T        '    V  TT  - 

usually  mere  designations  of  common  men  as  descendants  of  other  men. 
In  the  case  before  us,  I  cannot  well  doubt  that  the  meaning  is  conformed 
to  th(i  Hebrew  idiom,  which,  sjiecially  the  later  Hebrew  idiom,  employs 
son  of  man  so  often  as  a  simj)le  designation  of  man,  or  at  least  in  the 
way  of  corapellation  addressed  to  him  as  such ;  e.  g.  Ezek.  2:  1,  3,  fi, 
8.  3:  1,  3,  4,  10,  17,  25.  4:  1  al.  saepe.  So  Beza,  Vitringa,  and  many 
others.  The  majesty  and  sublimity  of  the  personage  who  makes  his 
appearance  in  the  present  case,  are  described  in  the  sequel,  and  nothing 
more  is  here  designated  by  o^ioiov  vio)  dy&QMTKp,  than  that  the  form 
was  human.  I  may  remark,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  said,  that  the 
Jewish  people  were  prone  to  call  the  Messiah  by  the  name  Son  of  God, 
rather  than  to  name  him  Son  of  Man ;  see  and  comp.  Luke  22:  69,  70. 
John  1:  49—51.  12:  34.  Matt.  16:  13,  16.  The  book  of  Enoch,  how- 
ever, shows  that  some  of  the  Jews,  or  rather,  some  of  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians of  that  period  not  unfrequently  gave  the  appellation  Son  of  Man 
to  the  Messiah ;  e.g.  chap.  46:  1—3.  48:  2.  61:  10,  13,  17.  62:  15.  68: 
38—41.  69:  1.  Son  of  God  it  also  virtually  calls  him,  102:  4  (No.  2). 
Also  once.  Son  of  woman,  61:  9. 

noSijori  is  an  adjective  from  nodijQrjg,  and  is  a  brachylogical  expression 
for  noSi'jQij  yizaia.  It  means  a  garment  or  robe  which  reaches  doxvn  to 
the  feet,  i.  e.  a  long,  full,  flowing  robe,  (the  "~"^"w  of  the  Hebrews,  1  Sam. 
15:  27,  and  so  in  Sirach  27:  8.  45:  8),  which  was  worn  by  kings  and 
nobles  and  priests;  comp.  Is.  6:  1.  Enoch  14:  22.  The  Accusative 
case  after  itdtdvfiivov  and  nsQtt^coafit'vov  is  easily  explained,  as  the 
verbs  in  the  active  voice  have  the  sense  o^ putting  on,  girding  on,  and  of 
course  may  govern  two  Accusatives,  viz.  one  of  the  person  and  one  of 
the  thing ;  while  the  passive  voice,  (here  pass,  part.),  retains  the  latter 
Accusative;  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §105.  1. — ntoii^oja/uyov,  from  ntoi- 
^ojytvut,  (old  root  ^djm  or  ^(oro)).  The  nobl^ni^,  being  a  loose  flowing 
robe,  required  a  girdle  to  confine  it  about  the  person.  See  Dan.  10:  5 
as  the  prototype. 


48  Chap.  I.  14. 

(14)  And  his  head  and  his  hair  were  white  as  white  wool,  as  snow ;  and  his 
eyes  like  a  flame  of  fire. 

In  Dan.  7:  9,  the  Ancient  of  days  is  represented  as  clothed  in  a  gar- 
ment ivliite  as  snotv,  and  the  hair  of  his  head  is  like  pure  wool.  In  Dan. 
10:  6,  the  angel  who  makes  his  appearance  is  represented  as  having  "  a 
face  like  the  appearance  of  lightning."  In  the  Apocalypse  XsvAog  is, 
for  the  most  part,  predicated  of  garments ;  e.  g.  3:  4,  5,  18.  6:  11.  7:  9, 
13.  19: 14,  in  which  case  it  means  a  glistening  lohite.  Once  it  is  predi- 
cated of  a  gem  or  precious  stone  (2:  17),  and  once  of  a  cloud  (14:  14)  ; 
in  which  cases  there  can  be  scarcely  a  doubt  that  it  means  radiant, 
splendid,  quasi  silvery,  i.  e.  of  a  pure  splendour  approaching  to  white, 
like  silver,  or  rather  like  that  of  u-on  or  other  metals  heated  to  what  is 
named  a  white  heat.  So  in  Matt.  17:  2,  the  raiment  of  Jesus,  during  his 
transfiguration,  is  said  to  be  Xhv/m  wg  zb  cpag,  i.  e.  all  luminous  and  ex- 
ceedingly bright.  In  Luke  9:  29  his  garment,  on  that  occasion,  is  said 
to  be  XevAog  i^aoTQanrmv,  radiantly  white.  From  a  comparison  of 
these  various  passages  it  seems  to  be  clear,  that  in  the  clause  before  us 
Xevxai  designates  pure  white  splendour.  Ensis  candens,  says  VirgiJ. 
(Aen.  XII.  91)  of  a  glittering  polished  sword  ;  and  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  II. 
25)  speaks  of  a  comet  argenteo  crine.  Storr  (Diss,  on  Apoc.  p.  4)  thinks 
that  gray  hairs,  as  the  insignia  of  a  venerable  old  man,  are  here  intend- 
ed ;  which  imageiy,  if  at  all  employed,  would  seem  to  be  more  appro- 
priate to  the  Ancient  of  days  in  Dan.  7:  9,  than  to  him  who  had  re- 
cently risen  from  the  dead,  clothed  with  immortal  youth  and  vigour. 
Besides,  what  would  //  necfaXij  mean,  in  this  case,  since  this,  as  well  as  al 
TQiysg,  is  said  to  be  Xw/j';  ?  In  a  word,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
purest  splendour,  like  that  of  the  lightning  (so  it  is  expressly  described 
in  Dan.  10:  6),  or  like  that  of  metals  heated  to  the  highest  point,  is  in- 
tended by  the  writer.  White  hair,  considered  in  any  other  light,  would 
be  wholly  inappropi'iate  here.  The  comparison  with  ivool  and  snow,  two 
of  the  whitest  natural  objects,  is  not  unfrequent  in  the  Scriptures  ;  comp. 
Is.  1:  18.  We  meet  with  the  same  imagery  in  the  Book  of  Enoch,  46: 
1,  14:  22,  coupled  with  the  expression  '■'■  brighter  than  the  sun^  In  a 
somewhat  different  sense  in  105:  2,  10,  although  perhaps  even  here  it 
means  resplendent,  comp.  105:  4.  Ilesychius  :  Afvxo'r,  Xu^itiqov. 

Ot  6q}d-aX}io\  .  .  .  TzvQog,  an  image  common  elsewhere ;  Dan.  10:  6, 
eyes  as  lamps  of  fire  ;  Enoch  105:  2,  4.  II.  XIII.  474,  et  saepe.  Poetry 
is  full  of  the  like  expressions,  e.  g'  fiery  look,  lightning  glance,  etc.  To 
no  member  of  the  body  is  this  imagery  so  appropriate,  as  to  the  eye. 


Chap.  I.  15.  49 

(!;')  Anil  his  fcot  worf  like  polished  brass,  ijlowinir  as  in  the  fiirnaco  ;  and  his 
voice  like  a  voice  of  nianj-  waters. 

XfdxoXt^drm — There  can  be  no  doubt  hero,  that  the  writci'  means  to 
employ  the  same  imagery  which  is  employed  by  Ezokiel  respecting  the 
ihcophaiiies,  where  the  prophet  represents  the  splendour  as  like  to  ^"^'^^'n, 
1:  4,  27.  8:  2.  Probably  this  word  is  compounded  of  "rn:  brass,  and 
^■0  smooth  or  polished  ;  for  bb;?  n'ins,  polished  brass  (Ezek.  1:  7),  seems 
to  be  its  e<iuivalent  or  synonyme.  Like  to  this  would  be  yaXxnh'^avov, 
from  yu).x<).;  /./.Trt/ifL",  polished  brass.  The  exchange  of  ^  and  n,  also  of 
Q  and  )',  is  too  well  known  in  Greek  to  need  any  special  explanation. 
Dan.  10:  6  also  exhibits  "bp  i^'^lns,  in  the  same  connection  as  the  above 
passages.  This  polished  brass,  so  called,  was  doubtless  of  a  peculiar 
kind,  and  very  splendid. — Other  derivations  the  reader  may  find,  in 
abundance.  Eichhorn  :  "  From  the  Greek  ;r«?.xOi.',  brass,  and  the  He- 
brew "ib  irhite  .  .  .  ut  insoleiitiiis  quid  [auctor]  proderet ;"  and  surely 
the  author  accomplished  his  object,  if  he  did  compound  the  word  in  this 
way.  Others :  yaXxog  Xi^avog,  i.  e.  aes  Libaniticum  or  Lebanon-brass. 
Sept.  (in  Ezech.)  /;Afxr()or,Yulg.  aurichalcham,  i.  e.  a  mixture  of  gold  and 
brass.  Much  is  said  by  the  ancients  of  the  splendour  of  this  elcctrnm  ;  some 
making  it  to  consist  of  a  mixture  of  gold  and  brass,  others  of  silver  and 
gold,  etc.  See  Wetstein  in  loc,  who  produces  many  passages,  of  various 
tenor,  from  both  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  Comp.  also  Ges.  Heb.  Lex. 
voc.  ''^'^'^~-  Salmasius  (Exercitt.  in  Sol.  p.  810)  produces  an  example 
of  the  word  ya).y.o).i^ai'ov  from  an  old  Greek  author,  in  which  it  means 
a  species  of  frankincense,  of  a  fiery  resplendent  colour  ;  and  this  inter- 
pretation Ewald  prefers.  But  the  evident  reference  of  our  author  to 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel,  in  his  description,  shows  that  the  ">"3'^n  of  these 
writers  is  meant ;  and  therefore,  X\\^i  polished  brass  is  the  most  probable 
meaning.  Still,  the  derivation  of  the  Hebrew  word,  by  some  of  the 
older  critics,  from  wirs  brass  and  sV?'?  gold,  is  not  an  impossible  nor 
even  an  improbable  one ;  and  then  the  word  would  mean  ijlfiXToor,  elec- 
triim  or  aurochalcum ;  which  would  give  a  good  sense.  To  my  own 
mind,  bbj?  n'rnD,  in  Ezek.  1:  7  and  Dan.  10:  6,  speaks  decisively  in  fa- 
vour of  the  first  interpretation. 

IltTTvoMfiiPoi — Several  versions  appear  to  have  read  TTeTivncafispcp ; 
and  so  also  some  two  or  three  manuscripts.  Eichhorn  patronizes  this 
as  the  preferable  reading,  making  it  agree  with  yaXxoXi^uvco ;  "  non 
enim,"  says  he,  "  pedes  erant  in  fornace  igniti,  sed  aes."  Lachmann,  on 
the  authority  of  Codd.  A.  C,  reads  ;rf;7i'()a)//iV;^i';  with  what  sense,  I 
am  not  aware.  The  weight  of  authority,  as  well  as  the  sense,  speaks 
in  favour  of  neTtVQcofii'voi,  glowing.  Having  compared  the  feet  to  a 
splendid  metal,  the  writer  pursues  and  heightens  the  comparison  by 
VOL.  II.  7 


•  .•/ 


50  Chap.  I.  16. 

supposing  that  they  resemble  the  raetal  when  subjected  to  a  vehement 
lieat,  in  whieh  case  its  radiance  is  greatly  increased. 

Kai  II  (pcovij  avrov  .  .  .  ttoXIcov.  This  simile  is  common  in  the  Old 
Testament;  e.  g.  Ezek.  1:  24.  43:  2.  So  in  Rev.  14:  2.  19:  G.  Also 
in  4  Ezra  G:  17.  Comp.  Dan.  10:  G.  The  roaring  of  the  ocean,  i.  e. 
of  the  waves  of  the  sea,  is  meant  by  the  voice  of  many  waters  ;  and  a 
more  truly  sublime  comparison  could  not  be  made,  by  adverting  to  any- 
thing else  in  the  whole  compass  of  natural  objects. 

(16)  And  he  hold  in  his  right  hand  seven  stars  ;  and  out  of  his  mouth  issued  a 
sharp  two-edged  swcrd  ;  and  his  aspect  was  like  the  sun  shining  in  his  strength. 

E^oiv  is  brachylogy  for  iyav  t]p,  and  is  an  idiom  very  common  in  this 
book,  in  which  the  author  imitates  the  later  Hebrew  of  Daniel,  which  is 
filled  with  participles  used  in  the  room  of  verbs  ;  an  idiom,  moreover, 
which  is  somewhat  common  everywhere  in  the  Hebrew,  although  pecu- 
liarly prevalent  in  the  book  of  Daniel.  This  book  is  specially  a  proto- 
type of  the  Apocalypse.  See  Vol.  I.  §  15,  p.  243  seq. 

JdartQug  Inru.  The  question,  how  these  are  to  be  disposed  of  by  our 
minds  in  a  congruous  manner,  is  attended  with  some  difficulty.  The 
hand  of  an  apparently  human  form,  (ofioioi'  v'to)  uv&Qanov),  seems 
hardly  appropriate  to  hold  seven  stars.  P^ichhorn  represents  the  expres- 
sion as  meaning,  that  on  the  hand  or  fingers  was  a  ring,  or  rings,  in 
which  were  set  seven  diamonds  or  precious  stones  glittering  Uke  stars. 
So  Heinrichs.  But  Ewald  justly  rejects  this  interpretation.  Wolfius, 
Vitringa,  and  many  others,  are  silent  on  the  subject.  There  are  two 
ways,  however,  in  which  it  may  be  interpreted.  (1)  'Ev  means  not  only 
in  but  also  at,  by,  near,  with,  see  Rob.  Lex.  h.  I.e.;  so  that  to  suppose 
the  seven  stars  were  near  to  his  right  hand,  i.  e.  within  his  grasp,  is  one 
mode  of  solution  which  the  diction  admits  of.  (2)  Another  is,  that  the 
right  hand  was  disj^layed  open,  and  the  seven  small  stars  rested  on  it ; 
Iv  often  means  on  or  upon  in  the  like  cases ;  Lex.  ut  sup.  1.  b.  On 
the  supposition  (altogether  consonant  Avith  Scripture  and  the  popular 
views),  that  the  form  apparent  in  this  case  was  larger  than  that  of  usual 
life,  in  order  that  it  might  be  specially  imposing,  there  can  be  no  particu- 
lar difficulty  in  the  position,  that  the  stars  were  seen  as  resting  upon 
the  hand.  Small  stars  indeed  they  must  be  ;  and  so  they  might  be,  in- 
asmuch as  they  represented  only  individual  ayytloi.  of  the  seven  church- 
es, V.  20.  The  idea  conveyed  by  this  symbol  is,  that  those  who  were 
represented  by  the  stars,  were  altogether  at  the  disposal  of  him  in  tvhose 
hand  they  were  held.  As  to  the  nature  of  the  imagery,  see  on  Iv/vlag 
under  v.  12. 

Pofiqaia  .  ,  ,  i'/.7TOQevo[iti'tj  —  The   participle   here  is  used  for  the 


Chap.  I.  IG.  51 

Ira|)crfcct  of  the  verb  ;  see  on  t^cov  above.  The  nature  of  the  imagery, 
however,  presents  some  ditruMiUies.  Are  we  to  suppose,  (as  some  pic- 
tures represent  ihe  case),  that  to  the  minilof  Jolm  the  Saviour  appeared 
with  a  sword  (in  re  vera)  issuing  from  liis  mouth?  This  would  at 
h-ast  make  a  representation  very  unusual,  and  (may  we  not  add?)  some- 
what unnatural.  In  order  to  avoid  this,  it  has  been  usual  to  refer  to 
the  poicer  of  the  divine  trord  to  destroy  the  wicked,  or  to  accomplish 
anything  that  is  requisite  to  be  done.  This  word  is  sometimes  called 
the  ireo//*  of  Jehovah's  mouth,  and  represented  as  omnipotent,  either  to 
create  or  destroy;  so  in  Is.  11:  4.  2  Thess.  2:  8.  Ps.  33:  G.  Perhaps 
Job  2G:  13.  llosea  G:  5,  "  slain  them  by  the  words  of  my  mouth,  .  .  . 
hewed  them  by  the  prophets,"  i.  e.  by  their  denunciations.  See  also 
Wisdom  of  Solomon  11:  20.  In  4:  Ezra,  (a  book  of  the  primitive  age), 
the  imagery  of  this  nature  approaches  so  near  to  what  may  be  regarded 
as  the  view  of  John  in  the  present  case,  that  it  is  worth  recital.  Chap. 
xiii.  4,  speaking  probably  of  the  Messiah  as  coming  "  cum  millibus 
coeli,"  he  says  of  him  :  "  Exibat  vox  de  ore  ejus,  ardescebant  omnes." 
Again  (v,  10)  :  "  Emisit  de  ore  suo  sicut  flatum  ignis,  et  de  labiis  ejus 
S[)iritus  flammae  .  .  .  et  succendit  omnes."  In  v.  38  he  says,  that  the 
Messiah  will  destroj'  his  enemies  "  per  legem,  quae  igni  assimilata  est," 
i.  e.  by  the  denunciations  of  the  divine  law.  The  foundation  being 
thus  laid  by  representing  the  divine  word  or  communication  as  endowed 
with  an  irresistible  power  of  excision,  it  was  easy  to  take  another  step, 
and  call  this  word  a  sword,  which  is  the  usual  emblem  of  a  destroying 
power.  So  in  Heb.  4:  12.  AVisd.  18:  lo,  16,  6  Tzavzodvvafiog  aov  Xoyoi,' 
.  .  .  it'qoi'  oiv  Tijp  uiv7i('y/.mzov  Inirayiiv  gov  q^focov,  'aiu  arag  inhjcmae 
ik  ndi'TU  Oavuiov  ;  a  veiy  vivid  representation.  So  in  ICnoch  Gl:  4, 
comp.  with  61:  15.  And  in  conformity  with  this,  the  Rabbins  are  wont 
to  speak ;  see  quotations  to  this  purpose  in  Wetstein  on  2  Thess.  2:  8, 
and  in  Schoettg.  Hor.  Heb.  on  the  same  passage.  In  conformity  with 
this  idiom,  the  tongue  or  language  of  men  is  often  repi'esented  as  a 
sharp  destroying  sword ;  Ps.  57:  4.  59:  7.  Job  5:  15.  In  Prov.  14:  3 
it  is  called  a  rod  ;  in  Jer.  9:  8  it  is  represented  as  an  arrow.  If  now 
the  writer  had  said,  that  the  word  or  tongue,  i.  e.  language,  of  the  Sa- 
viour was  like  a  sharp  two-edged  sword,  there  would  have  been  no  diffi- 
culty ;  the  idiom  on  all  sides  supports  and  illustrates  this.  But  he 
seems  plainly  to  present  an  object  visible  to  the  eye  of  his  mind,  which 
object  is  the  symbol  of  a  destroying  power.  And  as  to  this,  Eichhorn 
says:  "  Si  quid  judieo,  forma  alioquin  augusta  deturpatur."  Heinrichs 
makes  it  merely  a  figurative  expression,  and  not  descriptive  of  an  ap- 
parent symbol ;  and  so  does  Ewald,  although  he  adds  much  good  illus- 
tration. But  ad  all  else  here  is  symbol,  so  must  this  also  be,  in  order  to 
be  congruous.     We  have  then  simply  to   suppose   (as  in  4  Ez.  13:  4» 


52  Chap.  I.  17. 

10),  tliclt  tlie  breath  which  issues  from  the  mouth  of  the  heavenly  pei'- 
sonage  assumes,  in  the  view  of  the  Apocaly])tist,  the  form  of  a  shai-p 
two-edged  sword  ;  and  we  may  compare  this  phenomenon,  in  some  re- 
spects, with  the  cloven  tongues  of  fire  in  Acts  2:  3.  In  this  latter  case, 
indeed,  the  object  in  view  is  different,  inasmuch  as  the  symbol  is  indica- 
tive of  abiUty  to  speak  in  many  languages.  But  there  is  no  incongruity 
(as  Eichhorn  avers)  in  the  present  case,  when  we  suppose  the  breath 
to  assume  an  ensifform  shape  or  development,  not  as  remaining  in  the 
mouth,  but  after  it  has  issued  from  the  mouth.  This  would  be  a  most 
terrific  symbol  of  the  power  of  destruction.  No  painter,  indeed,  even 
of  the  most  glowing  fancy,  could  do  anything  more  than  caricature  such 
a  tremendous  image  ;  and  because  he  could  not,  the  representation  is 
declared  by  some  to  be  incongruous;  But  could  a  painter  draw  on 
canvas  the  scene  in  Ps.  18:  7 — 16  ?  Not  even  a  distant  actual  resem- 
blance of  it.  And  yet  this  Psalm  will  not  be  charged,  I  trust,  with  in- 
congruities.    -Neither  should  John  be  so  clmrged,  in  the  present-case. 

Kai  i]  oUng  .  .  .  dwdnei  uvzov.  The  question  here  is :  What  verb 
must  be  supplied  after  j]  oihg  ?  Usually  ijv  is  supposed  to  be  the  comple- 
ment necessary  to  the  sense.  But  if  rjv  were  to  be  inserted,  the  verb 
cfttivH  in  the  next  clause  must  naturally  be  changed  to  a  Participle,  viz. 
(fai'vcop,  as  is  evident  fi'om  the  nature  of  the  sentence.  We  must  there- 
fore supply  tcpavrj,  or  (in  conformity  with  the  preceding  constructions) 
qxuvovaa,  i.  e.  cpai'vovoa  t/v,  and  so  literally  translate  :  And  his  counter 
nance  [s/zo^^e],  as  the  stin  shi?ieth  in  his  strength.  The  present  brachylogy 
saves  the  repetition  of  the  verb  cpaiva  :  and  this,  not  at  the  expense  of 
perspicuity,  for  the  sense  is  quite  plain. — The  sun  Iv  zy  dvvdfiei  avzov, 
is  the  sun  at  mid-day,  when  his  beams  are  most  powerful ;  see  Judg. 
5:  31,  for  the  source  of  the  image.  Meaning  :  '  His  aspect  was  resplen- 
dent, like  the  mid-day  sun.' 

(]7)  And  when  I  saw  hiin,  I  fell  at  his  feet  as  one  dead;  and  he  laid  his  right 
hand  upon  me,  saying:  Be  not  afraid  ;  1  am  the  first,  and  the  last,  even  he  who 
liveth. 

"EnEaa,  Aor.  1  from  the  old  root  tisto^  =  nlnroi  which  is  a  syncopate 
of  mWfiraj;  see  Gramm.  §  83.  1. — '^ig  vEHQog — Such  was  the  usual  effect 
of  a  theophany  on  those  who  were  the  subjects  of  ecstatic  vision  ;  comp. 
Ex.53:  20.  Is.  6:  5.  Ezek.  1:  28.  43:  3.  Dan.  8:  17,  18,  27.  10:  7—9, 
17.  Enoch  58:  1—3.  70:  3,  4.  4  Ez.  10:  ^.  12:  5,  6.—'E&>]y.E  zriv  de^- 
iav  7,.  %.  X.,  and  the  like  is  said  in  most  of  the  cases  to  which  reference 
is  here  made.  The  right  hand  is  stretched  out,  in  order  to  raise  up  him 
who  is  fallen. 

The  reason  why  he  should  not  fear  is  now  suggested.  His  helper  is 
d  TZQmzog  xal  6  ea^^azog.     These  are  certain  predicates  of  the  eternal 


Chap.  I.  18.  .53 

God;  pee  Is.  41:  4.  43:  10.  41:  (>.  48:  12.  To  these  the  writer  adds 
x«)  0  C(^v  =  Ti  bx,  Josh.  3:  10,  i.  e.  tJie  living  God.  The  distinction 
of  vei*ses,  as  made  in  our  vulgatc  editions,  interrupts  and  mars  the  sense 
here ;  for  o  ^oji'  is  evidently  connected  closely  with  o  TtQwzog  xat  o  sa- 
XCiTog.  The  sequel  stands  distinctly  by  itself.  T/ie  living  One,  or  (he 
Ucing  God,  was  an  epilhet  among  the  Hebrews,  which  distinguished  the 
true  God  from  all  false  ones,  and  represented  hira  as  ever  energetic  and 
jtotent  to  do  whatever  might  be  pleasing  in  his  sight.  So  Ewald  ;  al- 
though Eichhorn  and  lleinrichs  place  a  colon  after  fj'w  £<//f,  and  make 
it  to  mean  :  "  I  am  he  who  was  formerly  your  beloved  INIastcr,  etc.  ;" 
evidently  in  order  to  avoid  the  ascription  to  Christ  of  the  attributes  which 
follow.  But  in  vain  ;  for  Rev.  22:  13  makes  the  same  claim  in  behalf 
of  the  Redeemer,  the  force  of  which  cannot  be  fairly  avoided.  Mean- 
ing :  •  I  am  the  eternal  and  unchangeable  Being,  who  always  lives  ;  and 
therefore  I  am  able  to  j)erform  all  that  I  promise,  either  in  respect  to  the 
rewarding  of  my  friends,  or  the  punishing  of  mine  enemies.' 

(13)  I  was  dead  indood,  vet  behold  !  1  live  forever  and  ever,  and  1  have  the 
keys  of  Death  and  Hades. 

'Eytrofir;v  .  .  .  7c5y  aicoyon',  i.  e.  I  was  indeed  subject  to  the  power  of 
death,  yet  only  for  a  little  time,  for  behold!  I  live  forever  and  ever,  I 
have  risen  to  a  life  which  can  never  be  interrupted,  never  cease. 

"L';roj  T«s  vXiii'i  .  .  .  fldov — mine  are  the  keys  of  Death  and  Hades  ;  i.  e. 
mine  is  the  power  to  open  the  gates  of  the  under-world  or  region  of  the 
dead,  and  to  rescue  whenever  I  please,  from  the  power  of  Death  and 
Hades.  I  regard  {yuvato.;  and  «5/;\,'  here  as peisojiif  cations  of  the  world 
of  the  dead,  i.  e.  Death  is  the  king,  and  Iladcs  his  subjects,  or  (so  to  speak) 
his  executive  ministers.  So  Rev.  6:  8.  20:  13,  14  would  seem  to  compel 
us  to  interpret  the  passage  ;  for  there  personification  is  altogether  evident 
and  necessary.  As  to  keys  and  the  associated  idea  of  unlocking,  one 
need  but  compare  Ps.  9:  13.  Is.  38:  10.  Matt.  IG:  18,  in  order  to  see 
that  tlie  Hebrews  ascribed  to  the  under-world  or  region  of  the  dead,  doors 
or  gates — imagery  borrowed  from  the  doors  of  sepulchres.  In  like  man- 
ner the  great  Abyss  has  doors  to  be  unlocked ;  Rev.  9:  1.  20:  1 — 3. 
The  Rabbins  say,  that  God  has  reserved  four  keys  to  himself,  which  he 
has  not  committed  to  any  of  the  angels,  viz.,  the  key  of  rain,  of  aliment, 
of  the  sepulchre,  and  of  pai-turiency.  Wetstein  (in  loc.)  has  many  cita- 
tions which  show  how  common  this  sentiment  was  among  them.  If  it 
were  prevalent  when  the  Apocalypse  was  written,  and  John  had  any 
respect  to  it  in  the  passage  before  us,  it  would  furnish  another  particu- 
lar in  which  he  ascribes  to  the  Saviour  the  prerogatives  of  the  Godhead. 
In  the  case  before  us,  the  speaker  means  to  refer  to  his  own  resurrection, 
as  a  proof  of  the  fact  asserted  in  regard  to  his  power  over  the  world  of 


54  Chap   I.  19,  20. 

the  dead  ;  and  he  >vho  has  such  power,  can  send  his  enemies  to  Hades, 
or  recall  his  friends  from  there,  at  his  pleasure.     Therefore  :  Mtj  cpo^ov. 

(19)  Write  now  what  things  thou  hast  seen,  and  what  they  signify,  and  also 
those  things  wliich  will  take  place  hereafter  : 

Ovv,  continuative  or  transitive  particle  here  ;  Avhich  seems  to  be  its 
primary  and  original  design  =  7iow  then,  hereupon,  i.  e.  in  addition  to 
what  has  already  been  said  ;  see  Rob.  Lex. — "A  tidei,'  refers  to  the  vi- 
sion of  the  Saviour,  related  in  vs.  10 — 18. — Kai  u  hoc,  and  what  they 
signify.  In  regard  to  such  a  meaning  of  ua(,  times  almost  without  num- 
Jber  in  the  Scriptures,  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  see  Matt.  13:  37 — 39 
where  this  verb  occurs  seven  times  with  such  a  meaning.  See  also 
Rev.  1:  20,  and  comp.  Rev.  17:  9,  15,  18.  Gen.  41:  26,  27.  Ezek.  37: 
11,  et  passim.  The  sequel  in  v.  20,  to  [ivarijQtov  x.  t.  X.,  appears  to  be 
in  apposition  with  a  etai  here,  and  exegetical  of  it ;  so  that  special  re- 
gard seems  to  be  had,  in  the  phrase  a  Eiai,  to  the  symbols  of  the  seven 
golden  lamps  and  the  seven  stars.  V.  20  explains  these  symbols. — The 
matter  being  thus  understood,  it  appears  that  what  John  is  commanded 
to  write,  has  respect  not  only  to  the  seven  churches  of  Asia,  but  also  to 
futia^e  events  ;  so  that  «  eideg  respects  the  first,  and  «  fitXXei  jivtadai 
the  last,  i.  e.  the  latter  clause  looks  forward  to  the  rest  of  the  book. 
Construed  in  the  other  way,  viz.,  "  Write  what  thou  hast  seen,  and 
what  things  are,  and  what  is  to  take  place,"  makes  the  second  clause 
unmeaning ;  for  the  «  nal,  in  this  sense,  diifer  not  from  the  «  iudsg.  In 
the  inter])retation  which  I  have  given,  Vitringa,  Eich.,  Heinrichs,  and 
Ewald,  all  unite.  V.  20  seems  to  render  this  interpretation  quite  ne- 
cessary. 

(20)  The  mystery  of  the  seven  stars  which  thou  hast  seen  upon  my  right  hand 
and  the  seven  golden  lamps.  The  seven  stars  are  anoels  of  the  seven  churches  ; 
and  the  seven  lamps  are  seven  churches. 

The  first  part  of  this  verse,  (as  I  have  already  intimated),  appears  to 
be  in  apposition  with  <2  eldf.g  and  epexegetical  of  it.  If  any  one  prefers 
it,  he  may  repeat  yQcix^iov  (mentally)  before  it ;  which  will  give  it  the 
same  meaning  as  apposition  ;  or  he  may  regard  it  as  the  Ace.  absolute  ; 
see  like   examples  in  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  115.  4. 

Mvazt'iQiov  means  something  secret,  unknoicn,  hidden,  or  obscure  to 
common  minds;  see  Matt.  13:  11.  Mark  4:  11.  Luke  8:  10.  1  Cor.  14: 
2.  Eph.  5:  32.  Rev.  10:  7.  17:  5,  7.  There  is  evident  reference  here, 
in  the  word  fivanqQiov,  to  the  symbols  of  the  lamps  and  of  the  stars, 
which,  in  themselves  and  without  any  explanation,  would  be  of  uncertain 
signification,  i.  e.  the  meaning  of  them  would  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
ordinary  powers  of  the  human  mind.  But  this  apparent  mystery  is  dis- 
closed in  the  sequel. 


Chap.  I.  20.  55 

^Siv  £i8tg.  Knapp  rotuins  for ;  and  with  him  agree  Matthaei,  Vater, 
AVt'tstt'in,  Titinann,  (iricsbach,  Ilalin,  and  the  Vuljjate  text.  Clearly 
the  evidence  pre[)onderates  very  niueli  in  favour  of  this ;  for  only  four 
or  five  Mss.  have  ov>;,  and  Lachmann  alone  has  adopted  it.  Liicke,  and 
probably  Ewald,  consent  to  Laohniann,  because  they  assume  the  posi- 
tion, that  the  Apocalypse  in  no  case  exhibits  an  example  of  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  pronoun.  But  see  tlie  like  attraction  in  18:  G,  about  the 
genuineness  of  which  there  is  no  controversy. 

'Em  zz/s,"  Stiidi'  nov.  If  we  compare  the  sm  here  with  the  ir  before 
the  same  expression  in  v.  IG,  the  inference  would  rather  seem  to  be  that 
they  are  equivalent  to  each  other.  Such  is  the  fact  as  to  the  substance 
of  the  meaning.  But  the  shades  of  expression  differ ;  iv  means  in, 
within,  designating  the  palm  or  inside  of  the  hand ;  while  Ini  means  on 
or  upon,  i.  e.  upon  the  palm  of  the  hand,  for  any  other  position  would 
be  unnatural. 

O'l  tTTTa  daTtQSi;  .  .  .  eiai  •  I  have  translated  dyytloi  here,  and  e/.Ah]- 
oiui  in  the  next  clause,  without  the  article  ;  as  they  are  in  the  original. 
As  predicates  they  are  more  naturally  anarthrous ;  while  the  adjuncts 
here  still  render  them  definite,  and  the  article  is  not  needed.  We  might 
insert  the  article,  however,  in  the  English  version,  and  still  render  the 
text  ad  sensicm. 

The  seven  angels  here  mentioned,  have  given  occasion  to  much  specu- 
lation and  diversity  of  opinion.  Are  they  teachers,  bishops,  overseers? 
or  is  some  other  office  designated  by  the  word  uyyflog  here  ? 

(a)  Old  Testament  usage,  viz.  the  later  Hebrew,  employs  the  word 
r^xb";  (=  uyytlo^)  to  designate  a  prophet,  Hag.  1:  13  ;  also  a  priest, 
Mai.  2:  7,  and  probably  Ecc.  5:  G.  As  priests,  in  the  appropriate  sense 
of  this  word,  did  not  exist  in  the  Christian  churches,  (for  these  had  no 
Mosaic  ^'itual  of  sacrifices  and  oblations),  so  we  must  compare  uyyelog 
here  with  "i<5':  (prophet)  in  Hag.  1:  13.  n()oq)ijTai  there  were  in  the 
Christian  church;  see  1  Coi-.  12:  28.  Acts  13:  1.  1  Cor.  U:  29,  32,  37. 
Ei)h.  2:  20.  3:  5.  4:  11.  Taken  in  this  sense,  the  word  designates  here 
the  leading  teacher  or  religious  instructor  in  the  Asiatic  churches.  The 
nature  of  the  case  would  seem  to  indicate  a  leader  here  ;  else  why  should 
he  be  specially  addressed  as  the  representative  of  the  whole  body,  in 
each  of  the  churches  ?     But, 

(6)  Another  exposition  has  been  given.  Viti'inga  (Dc  Vet.  Synag. 
))p.  910  seq.)  has  compared  the  uyye).o<;  of  the  Apocalypse  with  the  n^V*? 
~"Z^  of  the  .Jewish  synagogues,  which  means  legatus  or  delegatus  eccle- 
siue,  and  compares  well  with  uyy^h)>;  ty.y.hfaiug  as  to  the  form  of  the 
phrase.  The  ofHce  of  the  individual  thus  named  was,  to  superintend 
and  conduct  the  worship  of  the  synagogue ;  i.  e.  he  recited  prayers  and 
read  the  Scriptures,  or  invited  others  to  perfoi*m  these  duties ;  he  called 


56  Introduction  to  Chap.  IL  HE. 

on  the  priests  to  pronounce  the  final  benediction,  in  case  he  himself  was 
not  a  priest ;  he  proclaimed  the  sacred  feasts  ;  and,  in  a  word,  he  super- 
intended the  whole  concerns  of  religious  worship,  and  ordinarily  took  the 
lead  in  them  himself.  He  was  a  nQnmtMg,  or  an  inioxonog,  and  also  a 
8i8aay.u7.og  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  conip.  John  3:  10,  6  diddaxaXog. 
The  best  account  of  this  office  is  in  Schoettgen,  Horae  Heb.  pp.  1089 
seq.,  who  has  pointed  out  some  en'ors  and  deficiencies  of  Vitringa.  See 
also  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  under  the  two  Hebrew  words  above  named 
respectively,  pp.  1885,  2411.  But  he  is  too  brief  to  give  much  satis- 
faction.— From  the  views  contained  in  these  writers,  Ew^ald  has  made 
out  the  office  of  ayyhXog  ("ii3:»  '!!"'V-^)  to  be  a  kind  of  clerk,  secretary,  and 
sexton  to  tlie  churches,  and  concludes  that  didnovog  is  much,  better  fitted 
to  express  the  meaning  of  dyytlog  here,  than  Imay.onog.  But  of  this 
mere  secondary  office  I  find  nothing  in  the  sources  named ;  and  the  nar 
ture  of  the  case  shows,  that  the  superior  officer  is  in  this  instance,  and 
should  be,  addressed.  He  is  probably  called  uyyeXog  ixaXt^oiag  in  con- 
formity to  the  Hebrew  Chaldee,  'n^a^J  niV:J,  (possibly  in  reference  to 
Hag.  1:  13  or  Mai.  2:  7)  ;  and  may  be  named  legatus  ecclesiae,  because 
he  is  delegatus  ab  ecclesia,  in  order  that  he  may  offer  their  public  devo- 
tions to  God,  and  superintend  their  social  worship.  Exactly  the  limits 
of  the  office  and  its  specific  duties,  neither  the  word  dyyeXog  explains, 
nor  does  the  context  give  us  any  particular  information. 


THE  EPISTLES  TO  THE  SEVEN  CHURCHES  OF  ASIA. 

[The  preparation  being  thus  made,  by  the  majestic  appearance  of  the  Saviour 
and  his  condescending  kindness,  for  John  to  receive  communications  ;  and  he 
being  enjoined  by  Christ  to  commit  to  writing  both  the  explanation  of  what  he 
had  alreadj^  seen,  and  what  was  about  to  be  disclosed  ;  the  seven  epistles  to  the 
seven  churches  are  first  dictated  to  iiim,  that  he  might  write  them  down,  and  send 
them  to  those  churches  in  order  that  they  might  be  read.  When  I  say  dictated,  I 
do  not  mean  to  affirm,  that  John  heard  with  his  outward  ear  all  the  contents  of 
these  epistles  spoken  audibly  to  him  ;  for,  as  he  was  in  a  state  of  ecstasy  (1:  10), 
so  it  would  be  difficult  for  us  to  determine  how  much  belonged  to  the  outward, 
and  how  much  to  the  inward  man.  But  being  in  the.  spirit,  he  seems  to  himself, 
at  all  events,  to  hear  the  words  of  the  epistles,  i.  e.  the  contents  of  them,  or  the 
ideas  which  they  comprise,  are  deeply  impressed  upon  his  mind  and  memory,  so 
that  he  could  easily  commit  them  to  writing.  It  is  not  necessary  in  this  case, 
any  more  than  in  others,  to  suppose  a  mechanical  and  verbal  dictation  of  all  the 
words  ;  as  a  king,  for  example,  might  dictate  to  his  amanuensis  verba  I.envs.  It 
is  enougl),  that  the  inner  man  becomes  so  thoroughly  imbued,  in  vision,  with 
the  subject  matter  to  be  contained  in  the  epistles,  that  John  is  altogetlier  furnished 
for  the  work  of  writing  them,  and  of  sending  them  lo  tlie  churches.  He  receives 
his  commission  to  do  this  from  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  and  is  instructed  so  as  to 


INTRODUCTION  TO     ClIAP.   IT.    III.  57 

make  an  official  communicntion  from  hiin.  Thai  tho  writirifr  was  done  at  succes- 
sive intervals  bftwoeii  jjarls  of  the  vision — is  the  first  and  natnral  impression  de- 
rived from  a  continuous  reading  of  the  whole.  Rev.  10:  4  tends  much  to  confirm 
this  impression  ;  and  as  there  are  no  urgent  reasons  against  this  view  of  the  sub- 
ject, it  seems  to  me  quite  proper  and  congruous  to  adopt  it.  At  the  same  time, 
we  need  not  attach  much  importance  to  our  opinion  witii  respect  to  this  particu- 
lar matter;  wiiicli,as  all  must  confess,  is  not  explicitly  disclosed  to  us.  Enough 
that  John  was  under  divine  influence  and  guidance  (aV  -Trir//«rt)  when  he  wrote 
the  epistles  before  us,  and  that  the  Lord  Jesus  conniiissioned  him  to  disclose  to 
the  churches  the  things  which  they  contain.  The  epistles  in  themselves  seem  to 
wear  the  appearance  of  having,  as  it  were,  been  dictated  to  the  writer  ;  and  that 
they  are  even  more  than  ordinarily  the  result  of  special  divine  influence  as  to 
manner,  as  well  as~tndtfcr,  T  sliould  cheerfully  concede,  or  rather,  I  am  quite  dis- 
posed to  believe.  They  certainly-  in  some  respects  do  diffl-r  in  manner  from  the 
remainder  of  the  book  ;  they  difl'er  from  the  simple  style  of  John  in  his  Gosp»l 
and  in  his  general  epistles.  But,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  influences  that  op- 
erated on  the  writer  when  they  were  composed,  this  diflTerence  is  not  strange  ; 
nor  can  much  be  made  of  it  in  criticism,  (the  attempt  has  often  been  made),  if 
these  positions  are  substantially  correct.  But  still  the  manner  in  which  these 
epistles  are  composed,  deserves  special  attention. 

(1)  The  reader  should  not  fail  to  note,  that  in  each  of  tiie  seven  epistles,  the 
address  to  the  churches  is  prefaced  by  some  of  the  characteristics  ascribed  to  the 
Saviour  in  chap.  i.  ;  either  by  such  as  were  displayed  in  his  personal  appearance, 
or  by  such  as  the  writer  had  himself  already  explicitly  ascribed  to  him.  This 
niiffht  serve  to  make  an  impression  on  those  who  would  read  the  epistles,  like  to 
tiiat  made  upon  John  by  the  vision  itself.  The  regularity  with  which  this  is  done 
in  all  the  epistles,  deserves  to  be  specially  noted  ;  e.  g.  Rev.  2:  1  comp.  with  Rev. 
1:  16,  13.— 2:  8.  comp.  with  1:  18.— 2:  12  comp.  with  1:  16,  second  clause.— 2;  18 
comp.  with  1:  14,  15. — 3:  1  comp.  with  1:  20,  and  1:  4,  6,  which,  when  taken  in 
connection,  seem  to  imply  the  dominion  of  Christ  over  the  seven  spirits. — 3:  7 
comp.  with  1:  5  (o  juuQTvg  6  TTiarug),  and  1:  18.  From  the  latter  the  figure  of  the 
key  may  be  taken,  (or  perhaps  from  Is.  21:  22),  while  the  substantial  meaning  of 
the  clause  is  comprised  in  o  aQyo)V  roTf  ^aot/.toiv  Ttjs  y^?  in  1;  5. — 3:  14  comp. 
with  1:  .5  (clause  just  quoted),  only  that  in  3;  14  the  scope  of  the  expression  is 
enlarged,  and  it  becomes  a^'pi  ^*i^  xzi'asojg  rov  &ioi>.  From  all  this  it  is  plain,  that 
the  writer  in  composing  the  epistles,  had  his  mind  filled  with  the  vision  as  related 
in  chap.  i. ;  and  that  the  same  hand  is  plainly  employed  in  both.  Throughout,  the 
plan  is  uniform  ;  while  the  manner  of  executing  it  is  constantly,  and,  one  might 
almost  say,  sedulously  varied. 

(2)  After  the  salutation,  and  mention  of  attributes  which  characterize  him  who 
addresses  the  churches,  next  in  order  comes  olSa  rd  i'^ya  aov  or  aov  t«  t(jya. 
With  this  declaration,  which  means  that  all  their  demeanor  (for  f'(>ya  comprises 
internal  as  well  as  external  developments)  is  known  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  is 
associated  a  specification  of  the  various  characteristics  of  each  church,  as  well 
what  is  matter  of  praise  as  what  is  matter  of  blame.  To  two  of  the  churches, 
viz.  that  of  Smyrna  and  Philadelphia,  he  gives  his  unqualified  approbation;  2:  I). 
3:  8.  To  the  churches  of  Sardis  and  Laodicea  he  administers  sharp  rebuke  ;  3: 
1 — 3.  3:  1.5,  16.  To  the  churches  of  Ephesus,  Pergamos,  and  Thyatira,  he  gives 
praise,  and  also  administers  rebuke,  inasmuch  as  in  some  respects  they  deserved 
the  one,  and  in  some  the  other.     But  here  the  approbation   in  all  cases  precedes 

VOL.  II.  8 


''  4" 

58  INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.   II.    III. 

the  blame,  tlius  showing,  as  Paul  in  his  epistles  was  wont  to  show,  that  it  was  more 
grateful  to  coinmcnd  than  to  reprove. 

(3)  Encouragement,  admonition,  exhortation,  or  warning,  then  follows,  accord- 
ing to  what  the  nature  of  the  case  respectively  demands.  Particulars  are  stated 
wherein  reformation  is  needed  ;  and  grounds  of  hope  and  encouragement  are 
placed  before  those,  who  are  making  vigourous  efforts  in  the  way  of  duty.  All 
are  admonished  that  Christ  is  at  hand,  and  that  he  will  punish  or  reward,  as  their 
respective  conduct  and  character  may  require. 

(4)  The  closing  part  of  all  the  epistles  exhibits  a  remarkable  uniformity,  which 
still  is  mingled  with  variety.  Each  close  exhibits  the  admonition  :  u  i^wv  ove, 
dxovauTi'j  tiro  jrvtiifiu  ?.iyei  raig  ixx/.tjOMi? ,  in  the  very  same  words.  In  connec- 
tion with  this,  u  viy.MV  or  tw  viitulpTi  appears,  and  to  each  person  thus  character- 
ized, promises  are  made,  all  of  which  vary  in  costume  and  manner,  but  convey 
substantially  the  same  ideas.  To  one  church  it  is  said  :  They  shall  eat  of  the 
txee  of  life,  which  is  in  the  paradise  of  God,  2:  7 ;  to  another  :  They  shall  not  be 
harmed  by  the  second  death,  2;  11;  to  another :  They  shall  eat  of  the  hidden 
manna,  and  wear  a  mitre,  adorned  with  a  pellucid  and  precious  stone  in  front,  on 
which  the  incommunicable  name  [Jehovah]  is  engraved,  2:  17  ;  to  a  fourth  :  They 
shall  have  kingly  power,  and  be  made  splendid  as  the  morning  star,  2.  27 — 29;  to 
a  fifth  :  They  shall  be  clothed  in  white,  and  their  names  be  kept  in  the  Lamb's 
book  of  life,  3:  5 ;  to  a  sixth  :  They  shall  have  a  permanent  place  in  the  temple 
of  God,  and  be  enrolled  as  citizens  belonging  to  the  heavenly  city,  3:  12;  to  a 
seventh  :  They  shall  sit  down  as  kings,  with  tlie  Redeemer,  on  his  throne  o(  ex- 
altation in  the  heavenly  world,  3:  21.  Thus,  while  all  the  epistles  are  exactly 
alike  as  to  the  admonition  which  urges  them  to  hearken  unto  him  who  addresses 
the  churches,  yet  all  at  the  same  time  vary  in  regard  to  the  costume  and  tenor  of 
the  promises  which  are  made,  in  case  of  final  victory  over  spiritual  enemies.  Has 
not  a  writer,  now,  who  exhibits  so  much  grave  uniformity  in  one  case,  and  so 
pleasing  a  variety  in  another,  the  first  adapted  to  solemn  admonition,  and  the  last 
to  relieve  the  mind  from  all  approach  to  dullness  occasioned  by  repetition — has 
not  such  a  writer,  to  say  the  least,  a  tact  of  no  ordinary  character.'' 

One  other  circumstance  should  be  noted  here.  This  is,  that  the  monition  :  '0 
iyotv  ovs,  clicovadTOj  ti  to  irvsvfia  iJyet  ralg  iny.lTjotai?,  in  the  first  three  epistles, 
precedes  the  promises  connected  with  6  viaoiv  >t.  t-  k. ;  while  in  the  last  four  of  the 
epistles,  6  i'ywv  one  sf.  r.  )..  folio ics  such  promises,  and  stands  at  the  very  close  of 
the  epistles.  There  is  doubtless  a  designed  and  significant  division  into  classes  of 
three  and  four. 

Nor  should  it  escape  the  reader's  observation,  tiiat  in  nearly  all  these  epistles, 
the  manner  of  the  threat  or  the  promise,  near  the  close  of  the  epistle,  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  attributes  of  the  Redeemer  described  at  the  commencement  of 
it.  Let  the  comparison  be  attentively  made  of  the  following  passages,  viz.,  2: 
1  with  2:  5.-2:  8  with  2:  10,  11.-2:  12  with  2:  16.— 2:  18  with  2:  28.-3:  1  with 
3:  5. — 3:  7  with  3:  12. — 3:  14  with  3:  21.  Let  these  comparisons  be  carefully  made, 
and  the  result  must  be  a  conviction,  that  more  closely  interwoven  composition 
cannot  well  be  imagined.  It  is  surely  no  ordinary  hand,  that  can  perform  such  a 
task  with  so  much  skill. 

From  the  view  given  above  it  results,  that  in  conformity  with  the  trichotomy 
of  the  book  thioughout,  each  of  these  epistles  is  divided  into  three  parts,  viz., 
(a)  A  reference  to  some  of  the  attributes  of  him  who  addresses  the  church,  (b) 
Pisclosure  of  the  characteristics  of  the  church,  with  appropriate  admonition,  en- 
couragement, or  reproof,     (r)  Promises  of  reward  to  all  who  persevere  in   their 


BPHESIAN  church:  ChaP.  II.  1,  2.  Ki^ 

Christian  course,  and  ovcrconio  tlio  spiritual  enemies  wlio  assault  tliem  ;  src  at 
the  close  of  No.  4  abuve.  This  trichotomy  has  no  special  influence  on  the  inter- 
pretation of  these  epistles  ;  but  it  is  wortiiy  of  special  note  as  it  regards  the  rlie- 
torical  chiiracteristics  of  the  book. 


CHAPTER  11. 

(1)  To  the  anijel  of  the  church  at  Ephesus  write  :  Thus  saitli  he  who  holdcth 
the  seven  stars  in  his  rigiit  hand,  who  walketii  in  the  midst  of  the  seven  golden 
lamps. 

Tude,  i.  c.  t«  (from  o>  ij,  to,  used  as  a  demonstrative)  and  the  enclitic 
de,  of  which  particle  some  of  the  lexicons  take  no  specific  notice ;  see 
Ki'ihner's  Gramm.  §  349.  c.  Used  adverbially  here  for  thus,  so.  If 
we  translate  it  these  things,  the  sense  is  the  same. 

KQurdJi;  holding,  i.  e.  exercising  dominion  over,  having  power  over, 
holding  as  it  were  within  one's  grasp.  The  metaphorical  sense  is  here 
aimed  at,  althougli  the  literal  grasping  of  the  stars  in  the  hand  is  the 
imagery  employed.  See  on  v.  20  and  v.  16  of  chap.  i.  Christ's  pow- 
er over  the  churches  is  thus  significantly  expressed. 

Qi)  I  know  thy  works,  and  tliy  toil,  and  thy  patience,  and  that  thou  canst  not 
bear  with  those  who  are  evil ;  and  hast  tried  those  who  say  they  are  apostles  and 
yet  are  not,  and  hast  found  them  to  be  dissemblers. 

"Enyu  aov  is  here  generic,  embracing  all  developments  of  character, 
whether  internal  or  external.  The  two  nouns  that  follow  are  specifica- 
tions of  particular  parts  of  iQya,  which,  among  the  Ephesian  Chris- 
tians, stood  out  most  prominently  to  view. — Konov  (from  nonzai)  would 
seem  to  mean  lamentation,  beating  one's  self,  i.  e.  through  grief.  But 
here  it  designates  toil,  icearisome  effort,  labour  adapted  to  fatigue  and 
discourage  those  who  perform  it ;  a  sense  which  is  not  frequent  in  the 
classics,  but  is  sometimes  found  there.  The  corresponding  Hebrew  is 
^•:r,  which  the  Septuagint  translate  by  y.onog. —  Tnounri'iP  aov,  patieiit 
endurance,  i.  e.  of  the  evils  brought  upon  them  by  their  y.6nog,  or  by 
the  circumstances  of  trial  in  which  they  then  were. 

Jvvr},  for  dvvaaai  the  more  usual  form :  see  N.  Test  Gramm.  §  69. 
II.  5. — ^aazuaai,  literally  to  bear  or  carrg  a  burden,  etc. ;  figuratively,  to 
hear  zcith,  to  endure  as  a  matter  of  toleration. — Kaxovg,  which  might 
designate  evil  or  wicked  men  at  large,  has  here  a  more  limited  sense, 
inasmuch  as  it  refers  to  those  heretical  dissemblers  who  were  then 
troubling  the  Ephesian  church ;  see  xpevdelg  in  the  next  clause,  and 
com  p.  v.  6. 

Ennoanag,  tried,  sifted,  thoroughly  examined  ;  in  what  way,  it  is  not 
said ;  but  as  the  action  is  commended,  some  lawful  and  proper  method 


60  EPHESiAN  CHURCH :  Chap.  II.  3. 

of  trial  is  quite  plainly  implied. — AnoctoXovg  thai  indicates  of  course,, 
that  the  evil  doers  in  question  made  high  claims  to  authority  and  quali- 
fications to  teach.  But  who  they  were,  i.  e.  to  what  particular  sect 
of  heretics  they  belonged,  is  not  certain.  The  name  of  Nicolaitans  (v. 
6)  seems  to  be  symboUcal ;  as  do  the  corresponding  names  in  2:  14  and 
2:  20.  Eichhorn  conjectures,  that  they  were  disciples  of  John  the 
Baptist,  because  Paul  found  some  of  these  at  Ephesus,  Acts  19:  1 — 5. 
More  probable  is  the  conjecture  that  they  were  Judaizers,  and  (if  we 
may  compare  2:  14  and  2:  20  for  the  sake  of  illustration)  of  the  anti- 
nomian  cast,  or  perhaps  of  the  Gnostic  party.  It  may  throw  some  light 
on  the  efforts  and  claims  of  these  false  apostles,  should  we  compare  2 
Cor.  2:  17.  3:  1.  11:  4,  5,  13.  12:  11.  Gal.  1:  7.  2:  4.  PhU.  3:  2,  3. 
In  2  Cor.  11:  13  these  teachers  are  called  xpsvdanoGroXoi,  as  in  the 
text  before  us  they  are  named  ipevdsTg.  Perhaps  they  may  have  been 
like  those  mentioned  in  1  John  2:  18  seq.  4:  1  seq.  2  John  v.  10. 
That  some  of  the  false  teachers  of  that  day  assumed  the  name  of  dnoa- 
ToXoi,  is  clear  from  the  texts  referred  to,  as  well  as  from  the  passage 
before  us.  But  as  we  have  no  specific  history,  on  which  we  can  rely, 
of  the  minute  differences  of  the  earliest  heretical  sects,  so  we  must  leave 
particulars  in  a  state  of  some  uncertainty.  At  the  time  when  the  Apoca- 
lypse was  written,  no  doubt  all  was  clear  to  the  readers. 

^^'tvdeig  here  seems  to  mean  false  as  to  the  pretences  which  they 
made  of  being  apostles.  Of  course  the  implication  is,  that  they  were 
teachers  of  false  things,  in  other  words,  that  they  taught  error.  Had 
they  taught  nothing  but  tnith,  they  would  not  have  been  thus  severely 
reprimanded. 

(3)  And  still  thou  hast  patience,  and  hast  borne  with  [evils]  for  my  name's 
sake,  and  art  not  wearied  out. 

Kai  v7TO{i.ovjjv  exug  repeats  the  idea  before  expressed  in  order  to  give 
intensity  to  the  description.  Notwithstanding  all  the  trouble  which  the 
Nicolaitans  had  given  them,  in  spite  of  all  the  persecutions  which  they 
had  endured,  they  still  continued  to  exhibit  a  highly  commendable  ex- 
ample of  patient  endurance.  The  two  words  i^dazaoag  and  xexonia- 
xag,  as  employed  in  this  verse,  constitute  what  grammarians  call  an 
antanaclasis  with  the  words  ^aardaui  and  xonov  in  the  preceding  verse, 
i.  e.  the  former  are  a  repetition  or  echo  (for  so  uvtafaxXuaig  literally 
means)  of  the  latter,  and  at  the  same  time  they  are  employed  in  a  dif- 
ferent sense.  In  v.  2,  ^aatdaai  has  reference  to  a  state  of  mind,  i.  e. 
to  mental  toleration  or  endurance ;  in  v.  3,  i^dazaaag  refers  to  the  ac- 
tual endurance  of  sufferings  or  vexations  ;  in  v.  2,  -aotzov  means  weari- 
some toil ;  in  v.  3,  y.s.'/.omanag  (from  the  same  root  as  nonog)  means  to 


EPiiESiAN  CHURCH :  Chap.  II.  4,  o.  Gl 

be  wearied  out.  The  force  of  the  expression  may  be  thus  represented  : 
'  Tliou  ctinst  not  bear  with  false  teachers,  but  thou  canst  bear  with 
troubles  and  perplexities  on  account  of  me  ;  thou  hast  undergone  weai'i- 
some  toil,  but  thou  art  not  wearied  out  thereby.' 

(4)  Nevertheless  I  have  [aomcwiiat]  against  thee,  because  thou  hast  forsaken 
tliy  first  love. 

£^(0,  i.  e.  i^^  ti.  Kara,  with  the  Genitive  here  implies  an  accusa- 
tion or  charge,  for  it  means  against. — MydnViV  ttqcotijv — first  fervour  of 
love  to  C'iu'ist  ?  Or  does  it  designate  their  former  spirit  of  benevolence 
and  kindness  toward  all  men  ?  Either  would  make  good  sense  ;  but  as 
V.  5  exhibits  tlie  course  opposite  to  forsaking  the  first  love,  and  enjoins 
such  an  opposite  course  upon  the  Ephesian  churches  (^/loiijaai.  ta  nqmra 
i'liya)  as  a  remedy  of  the  alleged  evil,  the  more  congruous  interpreta- 
tion would  seem  to  be :  '  Thou  hast  made  defection  from  thy  former 
benevolent  and  beneficent  coui*se  of  conduct,  and  hast  need  of  repen- 
tance and  reformation  in  this  respect ;'  for  so  the  sequel  seems  to  speak, 
comp.  V.  19.  Eichhoru  construes  aydnijv  as  meaning  lenity  toward  the  ) 
false  teachers ;  but  where  in  all  the  New  Testament  is  such  lenity 
commended,  still  less  commanded?  On  the  contrary,  the  Ephesian 
church  are  commended  because  they  hate  the  deeds  of  the  Nicolaitans, 
V.  6. — Jicfijxag,  irregular  Aor.  I.  of  dqiitjfii;  the  Perfect  is  urpeixa. 
Some  of  the  lexicons  state  the  Perfect  erroneously,  i.  e.  making  it  the 
same  as  Aor.  I. 

It  would  seem  probable  that  the  church  at  Ephesus,  vexed  with 
troubles  from  without  and  within,  had  somewhat  declined  from  that 
universal  kindness  and  good  will  of  which  they  had  once  aflforded  a 
conspicuous  example.  How  strongly  this  spirit  was  inculcated  by  the 
primitive  teachers  of  true  Christianity,  is  everywhere  apparent.  Comp. 
as  specimens,  Rom.  13:  9,  10.  1  Cor.  13:  13.  Acts  20:  35. 

(r>)  Remember,  then,  whence  thou  hast  fallen,  and  repent,  and  do  thy  former 
works;  but  if  not,  I  will  come  to  thee  quickly,  and  will  remove  thy  candlestick 
out  of  its  place,  except  thou  repent. 

UtnTcoxag,  thou  hast  fallen,  old  root  TztTco,  Perf.  nenszco'/ia,  by  syn- 
cope TTtTTtbyy.a.  A  state  of  exalted  Christian  attainments  in  holiness 
may  well  be  deemed  the  height  or  perfection  of  our  nature ;  and  decline 
from  this  may  aptly  be  named  falling. — Metavotjoov  means  to  change 
one's  mind  or  purposes,  and  along  with  this,  a  corresponding  change  of 
demeanor. — In  tu  nQoira  tQya  7Toti,c!ov,  the  word  nQOJza  plainly  stands 
for  nnortna.  The  Hebrew  has  no  gradjitions  of  comparison  formally 
Ijiadejout;  hence  in  Hebrew-Gi'eek  the  superlative  and  comparative 
forms  often  intermingle  their  sense,  the  superlative  sometimes  being 


H 


^ 


62  EPHESIAN  CHURCH  :    ChAP.   II.  6. 

comparaiive  (as  here),  and  sometimes  conveying  its  appropriate  mean- 
ing.  ^  ^ 

Et  8s  iJtj,  lit.  but  if  not,  or  (which  is  here  an  equivalent)  othenoise. 
Filled  out  the  phrase  would  be  :  Ei  8e  firj  noiria^g. — "EQ/o^ai,  venturus 
sum,  like  the  Pres.  part,  in  Hebrew  (n2  "'3X),  it  has  a  future  sense, 
specially  a  proximate  future ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  136.  c. — ^oi,  Dat. 
after  a  verb  of  approach  ;  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  106.  8.  b, 

Ka)  xtvrjam  .  .  .  fiezavotjarjg  should  be  all  conjoined  in  sense.  The 
latter  half  of  v.  5  contains  two  clauses,  (1)  I  will  speedily  come  upon 
thee,  i.  e.  for  retribution.  (2)  I  will  -make  retribution,  in  case  thou  shalt 
remain  impenitent,  by  removing  thy  candlestick  out  of  its  place,  i.  e.  by 
extinguishing  its  hght.  The  phraseology  here  is  plainly  borrowedTrom 
the  phenomena  of  the  preceding  vision  in  chap.  i.  The  Lord  Jesus  ap- 
pears walking  in  the  midst  of  seven  golden  lamps,  1:  13,  i.  e.  surround- 
ed by  them.  These  lamps  are  symbols  of  the  seven  Asiatic  churches. 
To  remove  one  of  them  from  its  place,  would  be  to  withdraw  it  from  the 
special  and  immediate  presence  and  care  of  the  Saviour,  and  thus  to  cut 
off  its  privileges  and  take  away  its  precedence.  How  effectually  this 
has  been  done,  the  present  state  of  Ephesus  fully  testifies ;  see  under 
1:  11. 

'Eav  111],  i,  e.  h  uv  fii^,  si  =  if,  states  a  supposition ;  ju//  is  a  subjective 
qualified  negative,  adapted  to  a  case  of  supposition  like  this,  and  also  to 
the  Subjunctive  mode.  J^v  makes  more  prominent  the  conditionality 
of  the  clause.  We  may  translate  thus  :  Except  thou  shalt  repent,  or  in 
case  thou  shouldest  not  repent. 

(6)  But  still  thou  hast  this,  that  thou  hatest  the  deeds  of  the  Nicolaitans ;  which 
I  also  hate. 

yilld,  yet,  i.  e.  notwithstanding  what  I  have  said  in  the  way  of  accu- 
sation, thou  hast  this  which  is  matter  of  approbation,  viz.  that  (for  so  on 
imports  here)  thou  hatest,  etc. ;  where  the  latter  clause  stands  in  apposi- 
tion with  tovzo,  and  is  explanatory  of  it.  Such  a  use  of  the  demonstra- 
tive (ovTog,  zovTo),  where  the  clause  added  is  intended  to  be  made  em- 
phatic, is  very  common  in  the  New  Testament,  and  is  also  found  in 
classic  authors.  It  may  be  followed  by  on  or  iva  before  the  emphatic 
clause;  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  123.  4.  See  a  large  mass  of  examples  in 
Winer's  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  23.  4.  John  and  Paul  abound  most  in  this 
idiom. 

A'^ixolahwv,  a  designation  which  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion 
and  conjecture,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times.  Irenaeus  is  the 
first  of  the  Christian  fathers  who  mentions  this  sect,  Adv.  Haeres.  I.  26. 
ed.  Massuet.  He  traces  its  origin  to  Nicolaus,  one  of  the  seven  deacons, 
mentioned  in  Acts  6:  5 ;  and  he  states,  that  their  characteristic  tenets 


EPHESiAN  church:  Chap.  II.  6.  63 

were,  the  lawfulness  of  promiscuous  intercourse  with  women,  and  of  eat- 
ing things  offered  to  idols.  So  Eusebius,  Hist.  Ecc.  III.  29 ;  who  also 
quotes  a  passage  from  Clem.  Alex.  Strom.  II.  (pp.490,  552), the  substance 
of  which  is,  that  Nicolaus,  having  a  beautiful  wife,  was  jealous  of  her,  and 
being  reproaclicd  with  this,  renounced  all  intercourse  with  her,  and  in- 
duced his  children  to  live  in  a  state  of  perpetual  celibacy.  The  tradi- 
tion was,  in  Clemens'  time,  that  Nicolaus  had  said :  JlaQaxQUG&cu  t^ 
auny.i  dei.  This  some  interpreted  as  enjoining  illicit  pleasure ;  but 
Clemens,  as  renouncing  it  and  commanding  to  mortify  carnal  desires. 
Hence  he  vindicates  Nicolaus,  while  he  still  sujjposes  the  sect  to  have 
arisen  under  his  name,  and  by  a  perversion  of  what  he  had  said.  To 
the  same  purpose  Epiphanius  (Haeres.  XXV.),  who  has  made  additions, 
which  a.ssert  the  dissolute  life  of  Nicolaus,  after  the  occurrence  above 
related  respecting  his  wife.  Tertullian  (De  Prescript,  llaeret.  c.  33) 
speaks  of -Nicolailans  as  a  branch  of  the  Gnostic  family;  and  also  as 
extinct ;  for  his  words  ai'e  :  "  Sunt  et  nunc  alii  Nicolaitae  ;  Gaiana  [i.  e. 
Caiana  of  C«m]  haeresis  dicitur."  See  also  ibid.  c.  46,  ad  finem.  In 
this  latter  passage,  he  names  Nicolaus  as  one  of  the  seven  deacons  men- 
tioned in  Acts  G:  5.  In  like  manner,  respecting  this  last  particular,  do 
Philastrius  and  Augustine  speak,  in  their  treatises  respecting  heretics. 
Eusebius  (in  Ecc.  Hist.  III.  29)  also  speaks  of  the  heresy  of  the  Nico- 
laitans  as  then  for  a  long  time  extinct:  '/i<T/  aixrAQoraxov  avreozi]  XQO- 
ror,  i.  e.  it  lasted  but  a  very  little  period.  Yet  Irenaeus,  Epiphanius, 
Andreas  (Comm.),  and  others,  seem  to  speak  of  the  Nicolaitans  as  a 
sect  still  in  existence,  and  of  a  proselyting  spirit.  How  shall  these  con- 
flicting opinions  be  reconciled  ?  They  cannot  be  ;  and  the  aspect  of  the 
whole  matter  is  such  as  to  show,  that  various  floating  reports  gave  rise 
to  these  patristical  traditions  respecting  the  Nicolaitans.  Vitringa  re- 
jects the  whole  with  scorn  (Comm.  in  loc),  so  far  as  Nicolaus,  one  of 
the  seven  deacons,  is  concerned.  Mosheim,  instead  of  strenuously  de- 
fending the  origin  of  the  sect  from  Nicolaus,  (as  Ewald  affii-ms,  Comm. 
in  loc),  in  his  Ecc.  Hist.  (P.  II.  V.  15),  considers  the  matter  a  doubt- 
ful one ;  and  in  his  Commentt.  de  Rebus  Christ.  (§  69),  he  says  expli- 
citly :  "  Habent  res  faclionis  hujus  [sc.  Nicolaitarum]  plurirauui  obscu- 
ritatis,  quani  frustra  ingenio  fugare  conamur."  He  tiiinks  it  most  pro- 
bable, tliat  the  Nicolaitans  of  Epiphanius  and  the  later  fathers  were  a 
branch  of  the  Gnostics,  so  named  from  some  leader  among  them  called 
Nicolaus.  However  this  may  be,  (improbable  I  cannot  deem  it),  it 
seems  to  be  quite  clear,  that  nothing  definite  can  be  gathered  from  ec- 
clesiastical history,  respecting  the  existence  and  character  of  a  sect  in 
reality  bearing  the  appellation  of  Nicolaitans,  during  the  primitive  age 
of  Christianity. 

Most  commentators,  therefore,  since  the  days  of  Vitringa,  have  pre- 


64  EPHESIAN  CHURCH  :  Chap.  II.  6. 

ferred  another  method  of  solving  the  difficulty  before  us.  This  is,  to 
consider  the  name  Nicolaitans  as  symbolical ;  like  that  of  Balaam  in 
Rev.  2:  14,  15,  and  Jezebel  in  2:  20.  In  this  case  it  compares  well  with 
the  Hebrew  Di'ba ,  Balaam  =  n»  bj'S ,  dominus  vel  tyrannus  populi  ; 
for  NmoXaog  is  compounded  of  vinog  victoria  and  "kaog  populus.  An- 
other explanation  may  be  given  of  the  Hebrew  word  n^ba ,  which  re- 
sults in  the  like  conclusion,  viz.  t:S  "^3,  he  destroyed  the  people,  or 
(using  the  verb  in  the  common  Syriac  sense)  he  prevailed  over  or  con- 
quered the  people.  If  the  Nicolaitans  were  like  those  who  are  mentioned 
in  V.  14,  15,  (and  this  hkeness  the  latter  verse  asserts)  ;  and  if  they 
taught  (like  Balaam),  that  it  was  lawful  to  eat  things  offered  to  idols 
and  to  commit  fornication  ;  they  might  well  be  named  Balaamites,  i.  e. 
Niy.oXatzai.  It  was  common  among  the  early  Hebrew  Christians,  to 
give  persons  of  Hebrew  origin  a  Greek  name  corresponding  in  sense 
with  their  Hebrew  one  ;  e.  g.  NS'^3 ,  IIsTQog ;  xn'^ia ,  Joquag,  etc.  So 
here,  NrAolai'rai  =  Si"  b^'3  or  Ci>ba.  The  position  of  most  commenta- 
tors belonging  to  this  class  is,  that  merely  the  writer  of  the  epistle  ap- 
plies such  a  name,  in  a  symbolical  or  figurative  way,  to  the  party  who 
are  stigmatized  in  the  present  case.  So  Janus,  de  Nicolaitis ;  Heu- 
mann,  PoecUe,  II.  p.  391 ;  Vitringa  in  loc,  and  in  Observ.  Sac.  IV.  9  ; 
Storr,  Apologie  der  Offenb.  p.  260 ;  Miinscher,  Ueber  die  Nicolaiten, 
in  Gabl.  Journal,  V.  pp.  17 — 29.  So  also  in  the  Commentaries  of 
Lange,  Eichhorn,  Matthaei,  and  others.  As  I  cannot  fully  accede  to 
this  opinion,  it  will  be  proper  briefly  to  subjoin  my  reasons. 

The  manner  in  wliich  the  appellation  (Nicolaitans)  is  used  here  and 
in  V.  15,  would  seem  to  import  that  the  name  was  current  in  the  church- 
es at  Ephesus  and  Pergamus.  That  there  were  some  persons  in  these 
churches,  who  practised  the  vices  named  in  v.  14,  there  can  be  no  good 
ground  of  doubt ;  comp.  v.  20,  which  shows  that  the  same  immoralities 
were  practised  also  at  Thyatira.  Now  as  these  were  the  very  same 
vices  into  which  the  Israelites  of  old  fell  (Num.  25:  1 — 3.  1  Cor.  10:  7, 
8)  ;  and  into  which  they  fell,  as  it  would  seem,  through  the  devices  of 
Balaam  (v.  14)  ;  so  those  who  practised  them  were  called  Balaamites 
=  NirAolatrai  in  Greek  as  above  stated.  Whether  some  person  by  the 
name  of  Nicolaus  was  actually  their  leader,  as  Wolfius  supposes  (Curae 
in  loc.)  ;  or  whether  mere  popular  impulse,  guided  by  the  nature  of  the 
case,  invented  and  bestowed  the  appellation ;  must  remain  an  uncertainty. 
Nor  can  it  be  of  any  importance  to  determine  this.  It  was  a  character- 
istic and  significant  appellation,  a  lucky  hit  (as  we  say)  in  the  appHca- 
tion  of  epithets.  The  whole  aspect~of~the  various  cases,  in  vs.  6,  15, 
and  20,  seems  to  my  mind,  plainly  to  denote,  that  the  name  was  actual- 
ly current  at  the  time,  and  that  the  practices  intended  to  be  designated 
by  the  use  and  application  of  it  were  then  well  known,  so  that  no  doubt 


EPHESiAN  church:  Chap.  II.  7.  65 

could  exist  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  with  regard  to  the  meaning  of 
John's  words.  As  to  the  rise  of  such  a  sect  among  Christians,  one  would 
indeed  naturally  think  it  to  be  strange.  Yet  the  abuse  of  such  declara- 
tions jvs  Paul  makes  in  1  Cor.  8:  4.  10:  25,  and  specially  in  1  Cor.  6: 
12,  might  easily  give  rise,  among  the  ignorant  and  viciously  inclined,  to 
the  indiscriminate  eating  of  meats,  and  to  the  indulgence  of  carnal  de- 
sires. Still  these  very  things  had  been  expressly  forbidden  by  the 
apostles.  Acts  15:  29.  21:  2d\  and  therefore  such  vices  ai*e  mentioned 
here,  as  we  might  well  expect,  with  an  expression  of  severe  displeasure 
against  them.  Such  a  view  of  the  case  seems  to  afford  the  most  natural 
and  easy  solution  of  the  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  passage  before  us  ; 
and  by  taking  this  course,  we  are  unembaiTassed  with  the  obstacles  that 
lie  in  the  way  of  tracing  the  heresy  in  question  to  Nicolaus  one  of  the 
seven  deacons ;  while  we  educe  from  the  passage  a  very  significant 
meaning.* 

(7)  He  who  hath  an  ear,  let  him  hear  what  the  Spirit  saith  to  the  cliurches. 
To  him  who  overcometh  will  1  give  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  life,  which  is  in  the  para- 
dise of  my  God. 

But  who,  or  what  is  to  Tznvfia  in  this  case  ?  Is  it  the  Spirit  who 
dwelt  in  Christ  (John  3:  34),  and  which  "  God  gave  him  not  by  measure" 
i.  e.  without  measure  ?  Or  is  it  the  Spirit  who  was  in  John  during  his 
prophetic  ecstasy  ?  Comp.  1:  10.  The  first  inquiry  to  be  made,  in  order 
to  answer  these  questions,  seems  naturally  to  be  :  Who  is  it  that  now 
speaks,  i.  e.  who  utters  the  words  of  v.  7  ?  It  is  manifestly  the  Saviour 
who  speaks  ;  but  he  addresses  the  churches  through  John,  his  disciple 
and  servant.  Just  before  his  departure,  Jesus  made  to  his  disciples  a 
promise  of  sending  them  the  Holy  Spirit  (John  15:  26),  who  was  to 
teach  them  all  things  (John  14:  20).  Now  w-hether  we  consider  this 
Spirit  as  being  given  to  John,  and  so,  through  him,  addressing  the 
churches ;  or  whether  we  regard  the  Spirit  as  manifesting  his  will, 
through  the  Saviour,  unto  the  churches  who  were  to  be  warned  and  in- 
structed ;  the  difference  of  signification  in  the  passage  will  not  be  very 
imj)ortant.  The  Saviour  possessed  a  human  nature,  as  well  as  a  divine  ; 
and  to  this  human  nature  the  Spirit  was  imparted  without  measure, 
John  3:  24.     Ewald  says  :    "  Hand  dubie  spiritiis  prophetiae  est,  quo 

r — 

*  For  the  older  literature  in  regard  to  this  question,  the  student  sliould  consult 
Wolfius,  Curae  in  loc.  For  the  more  recent  literature,  besides  the  sources  al- 
ready named,  he  may  consult  Walch,  flist.  der  Ketzereien,  1.  p.  lG7seq.  Scheff- 
ler-Tiburtius,  de  Nicolaitis,  18-25.  These  writers  advocate  tlie  old  opinion.  In 
Constitult.  Apostol.  VI.  8,  Ignat.  Ep.  ad  Trail,  c.  11,  the  heretics  in  question  are 
called  tf)tvSioi>i/xoi  Nixolou'rai ;  which  would  appear  to  favour  the  idea,  that  the 
authors  of  these  compositions  rejected  the  notion  that  these  heretics  originated 
from  the  Nicolaus  mentioned  in  Acts  6:  5. 

VOL.  II.  9 


66  EPHESIAN  CHURCH  :  ChAP.  II.  7. 

correptus  (Rev.  1:  10)  Johannes  omnia  liaec  praescribit."  In  Rev.  19: 
10  we  are  told,  that  "  The  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  Spirit  of  prophecy," 
i.  e.  it  is  a  prophetic  Spirit  which  gives  testimony  respecting  Jesus  ;  so 
that  the  testimony  here  considered  as  given  by  Jesus  himself,  or  by  John 
his  servant,  proceeds,  in  either  case,  from  the  same  prophetic  Spirit  who 
addresses  the  churches. 

As  to  the  formula  o  e^^v  ovg,  uxovadto)  n.  r.  X.,  Jesus  was  accustomed 
to  repeat  the  same  after  the  addresses  which  he  made  to  those  who  sur- 
rounded him;  see  Matt.  11:  15.  13:  9.  Luke  8:  8.  It  seems  to  have 
been  a  not  unusual  caution  given  by  teachers  to  hearers,  and  to  mean  : 
'  Let  him  who  heareth  what  is  said,  well  consider  it.' 

T(p  vrAOJvn  —  not  homini  puro,  as  Eichhorn,  who  compares  the  Sy- 

riac  Vsl  =  ri2T  purus,  but — vincenti,  i.  e.  to  him  who  overcomes,  viz. 
the  world,  and  particularly  to  him  who  perseveres  in  his  christian  course, 
and  rises  superior  to  all  obstacles  and  all  opposition  made  by  persecu- 
tors— to  him  will  be  given,  etc.  Throughout  all  the  epistles  here,  and 
indeed  throughout  the  whole  book,  it  is  perfectly  plain  that  the  writer 
is  composing  his  work  ingruente  persecutione.  In  fact,  the  great  design 
of  the  book  originally  was,  to  comfort  and  encourage  those  who  were  in 
circumstances  of  distress,  specially  on  account  of  persecution.  The  op- 
posite of  6  vv/MV  is  given  in  Rev.  21:  8,  viz.  ol  dttXoi  y.ui  oi  anioroi,  i.  e. 
the  timid  and  those  who  confide  not  in  the  divine  promises.  As  to  the 
repetition  of  the  pronoun  avt^,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  248,  as  to  general  usage. 
I  may  remark,  however,  that  it  is  here  superfluous  as  to  the  essential 
meaning,  but  is  added  to  give  intensity,  (comp.  2:  17.  6:  4)  ;  and  the 
usage,  moreover,  of  repeating  the  pronoun  together  with  the  noun  or  sub- 
ject to  which  it  refers  is  very  common  in  Hebrew.  Heb.  Gramm.  §  543, 
comp.  also  §  545.  §  546.  Constructions  like  this  are  very  common  in  the 
New  Testament;  see  Mark  5:  2.  9:  28.  Matt.  26:  71.  They  are  not 
uncommon  even  in  the  Classics;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.,  §  121.  n.  4. 

ihaysiv  ix  rov  ^vXov  rijg  ^(oijg  is  the  object  of  the  verb  dcoao),  accord- 
ing to  a  very  frequent  usage  of  the  Lifinitive  mode,  which  may  be  sub- 
ject or  object.  The  imagery  here  is  drawn  from  the  garden  of  Eden, 
in  which  was  the  tree  of  life,  adapted  to  make  the  natural  life  of  man 
perpetual,  Gen.  3:  22.  The  tree  of  life  is  here  spoken  of,  beyond  all 
doubt,  in  reference  to  a  celestial  paradise  ;  comp.  Rev.  22:  2,  where  it  is 
spoken  of  as  belonging  to  the  yij  y.aift'j,  as  an  appendage  of  the  abode  of 
the  blessed,  gleaning  :  '  To  him  who  perseveres  in  his  fidelity  to  me, 
and  triumphs  over  all  opposition  and  persecution,  will  I  give  an  abun- 
dance in  the  future  world,  with  life  everlasting.' — cpaynv  in  makes  the 
expression  more  specific.  The  Genitive  after  cfaynv  might  be  used 
without  the  preposition,  inasmuch  as  the  verb  has  di  partitive  sense,  and 


CHURCH  AT  SMYRNA  :    ClIAP.    II.  8.  67) 

<payetp  rtvo^  is  normal. — ^vXov  <^coij>;  =  life-giving  tree,  or  life-preserv- 
ing tree. 

I I(i()adEt'aq),  a  word  of  oriental  derivation.  Thus  in  Sanscrit,  para- 
desha  or  paradiskn  ;  in  Armenian,  pardes.  The  Sept.  employ  it  for  '|^ 
in  Gen.  2:  8  scq.  Xeiioplion,  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  Jose|)hus,  also  use 
it;  see  Kob.  Lex.  In  the  New  Testament,  we  find  it  in  Luke  23:  43. 
2  Cor.  12:  4,  in  eaeh  place,  as  here,  designating  the  abode  of  blessed 
spirits.  It  is  a  frequent  word  among  the  Rabbins  in  the  like  sense. 
See  many  quotations  from  them  in  Schoettgen,  Horae  Heb.  in  loc.  By 
the  heathen  writers,  both  oriental  and  Greek,  it  is  employed  to  desig- 
nate a  pleasure-garden^  particularly  a  royal  one  which  surrounded  the 
king's  palace  or  citadel.  The  tropical  sense  of  it  here  is  evident ;  and 
the  imagery  is  certainly  vivid. 

'Ev  Toj  nanadtiaoi  tov  {l-eov  jiov  —  in  the  vulgate  text :  ip  fitacp  rov 
fianadtiaov  tov  O^tov.  But  the  weight  of  authority  seems  rather  against 
the  vulgate  reading.  Some  have  felt  a  ditRculty  here  on  account  of  the 
{iov  after  &£0v.  Riit  why  should  they  ?  Does  not  the  newly  risen  Sa- 
viour speak  of  my  God,  in  John  20:  17?  And  does  he  not  say  the 
same  in  Rev.  3:  2,  and  four  times  repeated  in  3:  12  ?  Why  might  he 
not  say  7ni/  God,  as  well  as  say  my  Father  ?  For  the  Father  is  God. 
Besides  ;  had  he  not  a  human  nature,  as  well  as  a  divine  ?  And  could 
he  not  truly  say,  in  respect  to  this,  my  Father,  or  m.y  God  ?  Those  who 
make  such  objections  seem  to  forget  that  Christ  is  {^mvO-QMuog,  and 
that  w^hat  he  says,  at  any  time,  is  to  be  applied  to  the  one  nature  or  to 
the  other ^0  re  nata.  All  serious  difficulty  vanishes,  when  the  matter 
is  viewed  in  this  light.  We  may  add,  also,  that  so  long  as  the  human 
nature  remains  in  union  with  the  divine,  such  language  will  never  be 
inappropriate.  Whether  this  will  be  always,  perhaps  the  Bible  has  not 
expressly  said ;  yet  it  is  difficult  for  us  even  to  entertain  a  supi)Osition 
which  would  deny  this.  See  what  Paul  has  said,  1  Cor.  15:  24 — 28  ; 
which,  however,  goes  absolutely  and  positively  no  farther  than  to  de- 
clare the  delivering  up  to  the  Father  of  all  delegated  and  mediatorial  au- 
thority. 

(8)  And  to  the  angel  of  the  church  in  Smyrna  write  :  Thus  saith  the  First  and 
the  Last,  who  was  dead  and  revived. 

riQcoTog  xut  saiaiog,  see  remarks  on  1:  17,  and  comp,  1:  17,  18. — 
'K^rjatv  here  ==  dvtXtjcsev,  i.  e.  came  to  life,  revived ;  see  Rev.  13:  14. 
20:  4,  5.  Comp.  also  C«oj  in  Matt.  9:  18.  John  5:  25.  11:  25.  Acts  1:  3. 
25:  19.  Rom.  6:  10,  13.  2  Cor.  13:  4.  Our  English  version  renders 
i^r^ne,  is  alive.  The  version  is  not  untrue  as  to  the  material  sense ;  but 
the  shade  of  meaning  as  well  as  the  expression,  in  our  text,  assigns 
both  the  death  and  the  return  to  life  to  the  past  time ;  strictly  in  accor- 


68  CHURCH  AT  SMYRNA :  ChAP.  II.  8. 

dance  with  fact.  Appropriately  does  the  speaker  claim  to  be  a  living 
Saviour  in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  the  word,  for  how  else  could  he 
perform  the  promises  which  he  makes,  or  execute  the  threatenings  which 
he  utters  ? 

(9)  I  know  thy  works,  and  tliine  affliction,  and  thy  poverty  (although  thou  art 
rich),  and  the  blasphemy  of  those  who  say  they  are  Jews,  and  are  not,  but  the 
synagogue  of  Satan. 

QXixpiv  may  be  understood  as  having  reference  to  the  sufferings  con- 
nected with  nrwf^uav  and  ^)M(j(fi)]fiiav ;  or  it  may  have  a  more  generic 
sense,  and  mean  all  the  sufferings  and  straits  to  which  the  profession  of 
Christianity  reduced  the  church  of  Smyrna  at  that  period.  I  prefer  the 
latter  as  being  much  more  expressive,  more  characteristic  of  the  times, 
and  agreeing  better  with  the  order  of  the  words. — TlKn-^dav  is  doubt- 
less here  to  be  understood  in  its  literal  and  usual  acceptation.  The 
article  before  it,  and  also  before  -O-Xixptv,  supplies  the  place  of  gov,  and  is 
so  translated  atTove.  The  converse  of  nzcoyeiav,  viz.  nXovciog  d,  is 
clearly  to  be  understood  in  a  secondary  or  spiritual  sense  ;  for  the  object 
of  the  speaker  is  to  show,  that  while  they  are  poor  in  one  sense,  i.  e. 
literally,  they  are  rich  in  another,  i.  e.  spiritually. 

BXuoqujfxt'av  ix  .  .  .  savrovg.  Here  fx  marks  definitely  and  emphati- 
cally the  agents  from  whom  the  defamatory  accusations  proceeded,  and 
is  therefore  more  specific  than  ^laoq}rjfA.iav  rav  leyovrav  x.  z.  1.,  which 
might  possibly  be  taken  in  an  active  or  in  a  passive  sense.  'Ex  makes 
the  expression  so  definite,  that  the  meaning  is  certain. 

'Jovdaiovg — ^in  the  figurative  sense,  i.  e.  the  true  Israel?  comp.  Rom. 
9:  6 — 8.  According  to  this  mode  of  exposition,  the  speaker  means  to 
say,  that  those  who  slandered  the  church  at  Smyrna,  and  occasioned 
trouble  to  them,  professed  to  be  true  converts  to  Christianity,  but*  were 
not  in  fact  so  ;  in  other  words,  they  did  not  belong  to  the  spiritual  Israel, 
i.  e.  the  seed  of  Abraham  by  faith  (comp.  Gal.  3:  7),  but  in  reality  be- 
longed to  the  synagogue  of  Satan,  i.  e.  to  that  synagogue  in  which  Sa- 
tan held  a  predominance,  or  to  those  professed  worshippers  whose  tem- 
per and  conduct  Satan  influenced.  If  this  be  the  meaning,  then  there 
seems  to  be  evident  reference  to  the  conduct  of  Jewish  zealots,  who 
went  so  far,  when  engaged  in  warm  dispute,  as  to  make  accusations  of 
Christians  before  the  heathen  magistrates,  in  order  to  have  vengeance 
inflicted  upon  them;  comp.  2  Thess.  1:  3 — 6.  See  also  the  spirit  of 
the  Judaizers  as  represented  in  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians.  It  may  be, 
however,  that  the  meaning  of  the  passage  before  us  is,  that  the  Jews,  who 
were  not  professed  Clu'istians,  but  who  cherished  a  fiery  zeal  in  favour 
of  the  Mosaic  rites  and  forms,  and  consequently  felt  not  a  httle  enmity 
against  Christians,  were  the  persecutors  here  alluded  to.     Almost  all  of 


CHURCH  AT  SMYRNA  :    ChAP.   II.  9.  69 

the  persecutors  of  Christians,  in  the  primitive  age,  were  first  excited  to 
persecution  by  this  chiss  of  men.  Construed  in  this  way,  the  speaker 
means  to  say,  that  they  are  not  even  so  much  as  true  Jews,  which  they 
profess  to  be,  but  of  the  synagogue  of  Satan.  The  extreme  bitterness 
of  spirit  wliich  those  defamers  exhibited,  would  seem  to  incline  us  to 
this  latter  interpretation ;  indeed  I  can  scarcely  doubt  that  it  is  the 
right  one.  We  can  find  a  touching  narrative  of  what  was  actually  done 
to  the  church  at  Smyrna,  at  a  later  period,  under  the  reign  of  Aurelius 
and  Lucius  Verus,  when  Polycarp  suffered  martyrdom ;  which  may 
serve  as  a  comment  on  the  coniluct  of  the  Jews  in  the  present  case. 
Euscbius  (Hist.  Ecc.  IV.  15)  has  told  the  story  at  length,  with  appeal 
to  ancient  documents ;  and  by  this  it  appears,  that  when  Polycarp  was 
apprehended  and  brought  before  the  Proconsul  at  Smyrna,  the  Jews 
were  the  most  furious  of  all  the  multitude  in  demanding  his  condemna- 
tion. When  the  mob,  after  he  was  sentenced  to  death,  set  about  gather- 
ing fuel  to  burn  him,  "  the  Jews,  lidhcra  nQO&v^iojg,  tOt,-  iOo^'  avToJg, 
ran  to  procure  the  fuel."  And  when,  inasmuch  as  the  burning  failed, 
the  blessed  martyr  had  been  transfixed  with  weapons,  the  Jews  besought 
and  urged  the  magistrate,  that  his  body  might  not  be  given  up  to  Chris- 
tians. Possibly,  at  the  very  time  when  the  epistle  before  us  was  writ- 
ten, Polycarp  might  have  belonged  to  the  church  at  Smyrna — as  he 
lived  to  extreme  old  age,  and  history  represents  him  as  saying  before 
the  Proconsul,  that  he  had  served  Christ  eighty-five  years ;  yet,  if  the 
Apocalypse  was  written  (as  I  doubt  not  it  was)  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  this  cannot  well  be  made  out.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
temper  of  those  who  belonged  to  the  synagogue  of  Satan  is  sufficiently 
exhibited  in  the  narration  of  Eusebius,  and  also  of  the  church  at  Smyrna 
in  their  epistle  respecting  the  death  of  Polycarp  ;  from  which  epistle 
Eusebius  has  largely  quoted. 

The  boasting  of  the  Jews  (comp.  3:  9),  in  this  case,  with  regard  to 
their  name,  in  which  they  were  wont  to  glory,  may  be  well  illustrated 
by  comparing  2  Cor.  11:  22.  Rom.  2:  17.  Phil.  3:  5.  Another  appella- 
tion of  honour  was  n^ri"'  bnp.  Num.  16:  3.  20:  4,  saepe  al.  Instead  of 
this,  avvayoiyri  zov  ^azara  is  the  appellation  here  given,  which  at  once 
characterizes  and  condemns  them. 

(10)  Fear  not  at  all  the  things  which  Ihou  art  about  to  suffer.  Behold  the  devil 
will  cast  some  of  you  into  prison,  that  ye  may  be  tempted  ;  and  ye  shall  have  af- 
fliction ten  days.     Be  faithful  unto  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  the  crown  of  life. 

'0  diu^oXog.  He  had  just  said,  that  the  persecutors  belonged  to  the 
synagogue  of  Satan,  i.  e.  they  were  under  the  influence  of  that  malignant 
being.  As  the  primary  agent,  that  being  is  here  designated.  Men 
were  his  instruments,  (voluntary  ones  indeed),  in   the  present  case. 


70  CHURCH  AT  PEEGAMOS  :  ChAP,  II.  11,  12. 

Prison  was  the  first  degree  of  punishment,  when  supposed  malefactors 
were  arrested,  Acts  12:  3,  4.  16:  23. 

"Jva  neiQaa&rJTE.  The  turn  of  this  phi'ase  depends  on  the  meaning 
given  to  iva.  If  a  telic  sense  be  given,  viz.  in  order  that,  then  the  de- 
sign of  Satan  is  signified,  which  was  to  tempt  them,  by  subjecting  them 
to  suffering,  to  recant  their  Christian  profession.  If  an  ecbatic  sense  be 
given  to  iVa,  viz.  so  that,  then  the  rendering  should  be  :  So  that  ye  must 
undergo  trial,  i.  e.  trial  will  be  the  consequence  of  your  imprisonment. 
I  prefer  the  former,  because  the  v/.^aatg,  in  this  case,  is  given  in  a  sub- 
sequent clause.  But  if  any  prefer  the  second  mode  of  interpretation, 
they  may  compare  Gen.  22:  1.  Ex.  16:  4.  James  1:  2,  3,  in  which  they 
may  see  that  trial  is  not  only  compatible  with  the  divine  government  of 
the  church,  but  an  ordinary  part  of  its  discipline. 

'H(itQK>v  di'y.a,  i.  e.  a  short  time,  a  few  days,  or  a  moderate  space  of  time; 
comp.  Gen.  24:  55.  Dan.  1: 12, 14.  1  Sam.  25:  38.  Neh.  5: 18.  Jer.42:  7. 
Acts  25:  6.  Let  the  reader  mark  well  the  symbolic  use  of  number,  in  this 
case  ;  for  the  exact  literal  one  will  be  insisted  on,  I  trust,  by  no  one. 

Qavdzov  refers  here,  probably,  to  a  violent  deatKT  Christians  were 
not  to  shrink  even  from  this.  In  case  they  remained  faithful,  a  crown 
of  life  would  be  given  to  them,  i.  e.  a  crown  of  glory  in  that  world  where 
immortal  life  is  to  be  enjoyed  ;  comp.  1  Pet.  5:  4.  James  1:  12,  and  spe- 
cially Rev.  4:  4.  The  main  idea  is  like  that  in  Rev.  2:  7,  q:ayttv  h.  zov 
^vXov  rijg  C™/;? ;  but  the  difference  between  the  two  cases  is,  that  here 
the  exalted  and  glorious  state  of  the  martyrs  is  more  distinctly  marked 
by  the  nature  of  the  imagery  employed. 

(11)  He  who  hath  an  ear,  Jet  him  hear  what  the  Spirit  saith  to  the  churches. 
He  who  overcometh,  shall  not  be  harmed  by  the  second  death. 

Jldr/.r^&y,  lit.  to  suffer  i7ijustice  ;  but  secondarily,  as  here,  to  suffer 
harm  or  injury.  The  second  death  is  that  which  follows  the  general  resur- 
rection and  judgment,  Rev.  20:  14.  21:  8.  This  is  here  opposed  to  the 
crown  of  life.  On  the  use  of  ov  fxij  see  Gramm.  §  148.  4.  Meaning: 
'  The  faithful  martyr  shall  receive  a  crown  of  unfading  glory  (1  Pet.  5: 
4),  and  never  experience  any  other  death  than  that  of  the  body.'  The 
promise  to  the  faithful  is,  as  often  in  the  writings  of  John,  announced 
both  in  the  affirmative  and  negative  form. 

(12)  And  to  the  angel  of  the  church  in  Pergamos  write  :  Thus  saith  he  who 
hath  the  sharp  two-edged  sword; 

'Pofiq)(uav  diGTo^iov,  o^elav,  see  1:  16,  with  the  remarks  there  made. 
The  manner  in  which  the  idea  of  such  a  sword  issuing  from  the  mouth 
came  into  the  mind  of  the  writer,  seems  to  have  been  as  stated  in  those 
remarks.     "We  may  suppose  that  when  the  Saviour,  in  the  vision  related 


cnuRcii  AT  PERGAMOs  :  Chap.  II.  13.  71 

in  chap,  i,  uttered  words,  as  they  proceeded  from  his  mouth  the  halitu3 
which  accompanied  them  assumed,  in  the  view  of  John,  the  form  of  an 
ijriieous  two-edged  sword :  thus  indicating  the  awful  power  of  his  dec- 
larations, and  specially  of  his  condemning  sentence.  Here  he  is  about 
to  reprove,  in  part ;  and  they  who  arc  addi-essed,  are  warned  of  the  pow- 
er of  his  reproof  by  the  writer's  employing  this  imagery. — "Exav,  in  this 
case,  of  course  does  not  mean  to  possess  as  an  attribute,  but  (as  often 
elsewhere)  to  hare  or  hold  at.  one's  disposal.  Meaning:  '  He,  who  has 
power  by  a  single  word  to  chastise,  or  even  to  destroy,  addresses  you  ; 
hearken  then  to  his  warnings  !'  * 

(13)  I  know  thy  works  and  where  thou  dwcllcst,  even  wliere  Satan's  throne 
is;  and  thou  holdest  fast  my  name,  and  hast  not  denied  my  faith,  even  in  tlie 
days  in  which  Antipas  [was]  my  failiiful  martyr,  who  was  slain  among  you,  where 
Satan  dwelletli. 

77oii  •MtTOiyM'i,  i.  e.  I  know  well  in  what  an  impious  and  cruel  place 
thou  dwellest. —  Onov  .  .  .  aazavd,  even  where  the  very  metropolis  of 
Satan  is,  or  where  he  sits  enthroned,  i.  e.  where  he  exercises  his  power 
of  stirring  up  hatred  and  persecution  in  a  peculiar  and  successful  man- 
ner. This  is  explained  by  the  context,  which  states  that  Antipas  had 
been  actually  slain  there,  on  account  of  the  Christian  faith ;  an  allega- 
tion the  like  of  which  is  not  made  in  respect  to  any  of  the  other  cities 
•where  the  churches  addressed  had  their  abode.  Ewald  refers  to  An- 
dreas as  maintaining,  that  the  city  of  Pergamos  was  distinguished  above 
all  the  Asiatic  cities  for  idolatry.  He  represents  it,  indeed,  as  y.azetdco- 
Xo^;  but  particularly  as  distinguished  for  its  bitter  enmity  to  Christians. 
Here  Aesculapius  was  worshipped  with  much  zeal ;  and  Wetstein  has 
accumulated  passages  from  the  classics  in  oi'der  to  prove  this ; — to  what 
purpose,  as  it  regards  the  plain  and  sim[)le  interpretation  of  our  text,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  show.  He  has  done  the  same,  in  order  to  illustrate 
vtxQOi;  xnl  fl^ijoe  in  v.  8 ;  which  surely  is  labour  lost.  Who  will  sup- 
pose, that  the  fabled  power  of  Aesculapius  to  restore  life,  is  alluded  to  in 
these  ciises,  when  there  are  other  plainer  and  more  appropriate  sources 
to  which  the  language  may  be  referred  ?  It  is  not  the  heathen  mythology 
which  here  comes  into  view,  but  the  Hel>re\v  demonology,  so  far  as 
Satan  is  concerned. 

KoHTti.,-  TO  oi'oud  NOV.  Tlicy  had  professed  to  be  Christians  ;  they 
had  taken  the  name  of  Christ  upon  them  ;  and  to  this  profession  and 
name  they  steadfa-^tly  adhered,  amidst  all  the  terrors  of  persecution. — 
Kai  OVA  .  .  .  mariv  fjov,  the  same  sentiment  again,  for  substance,  in  the 
way  of  negation,  i.  e.  a  hzoTtji;,  as  the  grammarians  call  it.  See  exam- 
ples of  this  usage  in  heathen  writers,  in  Kuinoel  on  John  1:  3,  20.  To 
deny  the  Christian  faith  would  also  involve  the  act  of  letting  go  or  of 


m 


•*^ 


72  CHURCH  AT  PEKGAMOS  :  ChAP.  II.  13. 

renouncing  the  Christian  name.     The  church  at  Pergamos  had  done 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 

^Ev  ralg  )j(itQaig  ...  6  motog.  "  NotabiHs  est,"  says  Ewald,  "  hoc 
versu  construct io7u's  negligentia,  quam  alibi  frustra  in  Apocalypsi  quae- 
ras."  This  negligentia  some  have  attempted  to  remedy,  by  omitting  iv 
ah'  and  writing  Jivrinu  (Gen.)  ;  others,  by  throwing  out  og ;  but  the 
bodices,  so  far  as  yet  known,  will  not  allow  us  to  do  either.  Can  we 
choose,  then,  an  easier  method  of  solution,  which  is  by  supposing  -qv  to 
be  implied  after  Jivrlnag  ?  The  omission  of  the  verb  Hfii  in  cases  with- 
out number,  every  intelligent  reader  must  be  acquainted  with  ;  see  Rom. 
11:  11.  1  Cor.  15:  21.  IMatt.  27:  4.  Mark  5:  9.  Heb.  10:  18.  Rom.  4: 
13,  et  al.  saepe.  If  any  one  should  say,  that  in  all  these  cases  the  noun 
connected  with  lori  implied,  is  the  subject  of  the  proposition  ;  or  that 
the  predicate  could  not  have  the  article,  in  case  we  insert  i]v  after  Av- 
7 mag;  let  him  compare  1  Cor.  15:  56,  Phil.  3:  19.  1  Cor.  11:  3.  The 
difficulty  with  the  supposition  does  not  lie  in  this ;  for  the  article,  in  this 
case,  would  be  demanded  in  order  properly  to  specify  ftuQTvg  emphati- 
cally. It  lies  merely  in  the  fact,  that  ellipses  of  the  verb  £i.[xi  are  mostly 
of  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense,  (a  few  in  the  third  plu- 
ral) ;  see  Winer's  Gramm.  §  (jQ.  2.  But  it  is  also  true,  that  in  the 
Apocalypse  we  have  a  large  number  of  instances  in  which  the  Imper- 
fect of  tqu  (//f)  is  omitted,  and  must  be  mentally  supplied ;  e.  g.  Rev 
1:  16  twice.  In  4:  1,  5 — 7  are  repeated  cases  where  ?]v  seems  to  be 
omitted,  both  with  a  participle  and  without  it ;  also  in  4:  5,  xaiofievui, 
6:  2,  5.  7:  9.  10:  2,  8  (bis).  19:  11,  12,  13.  21:  14,  etc.  All  these  lat- 
ter cases,  however,  ai'e  somewhat  different  from  the  one  before  us,  inas- 
much as  a  participle  is  expressed,  which  must  be  joined  with  the  implied 
past  tense  of  e/ju/.  In  this  way,  i.  e.  by  supplying  i]v,  Vitringa,  Daubuz, 
and  others  unhesitatingly  exjilain  the  clause  before  us.  But  if  we  hesi- 
tate to  adopt  this  method,  we  may  resort  to  the  context,  in  order  to  de- 
termine what  verb  we  must  suppose  to  be  implied.  This  will  afford  us 
either  ovy.  ijQvijaaro  avrrjv,  sc.  niaziv,  or  else  tuQarijaev  avzo,  sc.  ovofia. 
I  should  prefer  the  latter,  because  it  is  the  more  leading  and  prominent 
idea.  It  is  indeed  rather  an  uncommon  ellipsis ;  and  EAvald,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  says  that  the  like  of  it  is  nowhere  else  to  be  found  in 
^the  Apocalypse.  Yet  if  we  concede  this,  there  are  many  cases  of  ellip- 
sis in  the  Greek  classics  not  less  striking,  nor  less  unexpected  by  the 
reader,  than  this ;  as  any  one  may  see  by  consulting  a  full  exemplifica- 
tion of  them  in  the  grammars. 

I  can,  after  all,  scarcely  refrain  from  believing,  that  o  niorog,  og  aTtsx- 
Tav&tj  was  originally  written  6  mGzog  dn£y.rdvd^q  ;  for  thus  all  is  plain 
and  facile.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  intruder  og  came  in,  i.  e.  in  con- 
sequence of  the  ending  of  the  preceding  word.     The  Syriac  version 


J        CHURCH  AT  PERGAM09  :  ChAP.  II.  14.  f$       ^ 

here  does  not  aid  us ;  for  it  reads  thus :  "  My  witness,  who  was  my 
faitiiful  one,  who  was  killed  among  you."  It  is  evident  that  the  trans- 
lator found  some  diflieulty  in  the  text ;  for  this  must  have  led  him  thus 
to  paraphrase  it. 

Of  the  Antipas  here  named  we  know  nothing  further;  excepting  that 
Andreas  (Comm.  written  near  the  close  of  Cent.  V.)  mentions,  that  he 
had  road  a  martyrology  of  him.  Eusebius  (Ecc.  Hist.  IV.  15)  mentions 
the  names  of  several  persons  at  Fergamos,  who  suffered  martyrdom 
about  the  same  time  as  Polycarp ;  which,  however,  was  long  after  the 
death  of  Antipas.  In  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (II.  pp.  3,  4)  is  a  martyr- 
ology  of  Antipas  from  a  Greek  Ms.;  but  it  is  full  of  fable  and  fiction, 
which  a  later  age  had  added  to  the  original  story. 

Ottov  6  auTar(t<;  xarof/.tT,  a  repetition  of  what  is  said  in  the  first  part 
of  the  verse  ;  which  shows  the  intensity  of  th(^  writer's  feelings  in  regard 
to  the  malice  and  devices  of  Satan,  as  exhibitedHt  Pergamos. 

fc  (14)  Hat  I  have  a  few  things  atrainst  thee,  that  thou  hast  there  some  who  hold 
the  doctrine  of  Balaam,  who  taujrlit  Balak  to  cast  a  stumblinir  block  before  the 
cliildren  of  Israel,  to  eat  things  otfered  to  idols  and  to  commit  fornication. 

"Ex(^  y-ciTa  aov  oh'ya,  a  little  diflferent  in  form  from  s^co  xard  nnv  in 
V.  4,  but  substantially  of  the  same  meaning.  There  ri  is  implied,  i.  e. 
sojnewhat ;  here  oh'ya,  a  feiv  things,  is  expressed.  There,  the  complaint 
is  that  their  first  love  had  become  cold,  while  still  it  is  conceded  that 
they  are  zealously  opposed  to  the  Nicolaitans ;  here,  the  church  tole- 
rates these  heretics  with  lenity,  or  at  least  with  a  kind  of  indifference  ; 
but  in  respect  to  other  things,  they  are  not  complained  of. 

"Eyug  implies  that  the  church  has,  within  its  own  body,  the  Balaam- 
ites  or  Nicolaitans.  Otherwise  they  would  not  be  responsible  for  the 
toleration  of  them. —  didcv/^v  BaXaufi.  AVhat  this  Avas,  may  be  learned 
from  Num.  25:  1,  2  comp.  with  Num.  31:  IG,  from  which  it  appears, 
that,  through  the  counsel  of  Balaam,  the  Moabites  and  Midianites  com- 
])ined  to  tempt  the  children  of  Israel  by  idol  worship  connected  with  fe- 
male devotees  to  it ;  so  that  the  Jewish  people  committed  fornication 
and  ate  of  the  idol  sacrifices ;  for  such  must  be  the  meaning  of  Num. 
25:  2:  "And  the  people  ate,  and  bowed  down  to  their  gods,"  viz.  to 
those  of  Moab.  Ewald  is  in  an  error,  when  he  says  that  eidojlo&vTa 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Balaam,  for  they  are  plainly  implied 
in  the  phrase  quoted.  The  reference,  however,  in  this  passage,  is  not 
merely  to  the  example  of  Balaam,  so  far  as  criminality  is  alleged,  but 
also  to  a  principle  established  by  the  apostolic  decree  in  Acts  15:  28 
seq.,  where  all  the  churches  are  required  dntjeo&ai  tidcoXoO^vzcov  .  .  . 
ncu  noQvtlag.     Balaam  was  an  odious  name  among  the  Hebrews,  and 

VOL.  II.  10 


mf- 


74  CHURCH  AT  PERGAMOS  :  ChAP.  II.  14. 

for  good  reasons ;  to  refer  then  to  vicfes  which  he  taught,  was  to  stigma- 
tize them  as  peculiarly  odious. 

'Edidaaxe  T(p  BaXux  is  an  offence  to  the  critics,  because  verbs  of 
teaching  govern  two  Accusatives,  the  one  of  the  thing  tauglit,  and  the 
other  of  the  person  who  is  taught.  Here  ^alnv  x.  r.  X.  is  the  thing 
taught,  and  the  person  is  put  in  the  Dative.  But  the  Hebrews,  with 
whom,  in  such  a  case,  the  same  idiom  as  that  of  the  Greeks  is  the  usual 
one,  dQ  not  always  follow  it ;  e.  g.  b  l^b ,  i.  e.  with  h  before  the  person, 
Job  21:22.  So  h  trnin,  Deut.  3'3:  10.  Hos.  10:12  (bis).  Besides 
this,  however,  there  is  another  method  of  explanation,  viz.  by  transla- 
ting thus :  '  Who  taught,  by  Balak,  to  cast,  etc,'  i.  e.  who  used  Balak  as 
his  instrument,  in  thus  enticing  the  children  of  Israel.  The  persons 
tliat  were  taught  in  this  case  would  be,  by  implication,  the  Moabites 
and  Midianites,  who  were  directed  by  Balak  to  entice  the  Hebrews  ;  and 
that  they  did  so,  the  sacred  history  relates.  But  after  all,  the  reading 
rco  is  very  doubtfully  supported,  having  only  A.  C.  and  11.  in  its  favour. 
Wetsteiu,  Vater,  and  Tittmann,  all  read  rov ;  Griesbach,  Knapp,  and 
Lachraann,  t&j.  Mill,  iv  rw  ^ahv/.,  i.  e.  in  the  history  of  Balak.  Tov 
is  nonnal  and  is  to  be  preferred,  if  supported  by  better  authority ;  but 
as  to  the  question,  whether  it  is  better  in  this  case,  the  critics  are  divi- 
ded. That  rule  of  criticism,  (here  applied),  which  prefers  the  reading  | 
that  is  not  normal,  in  a  case  of  tolerable  support,  is  to  be  received  with 
much  caution  at  the  best.  If  a  writer  shows  that  he  is  well  acquainted 
with  a  particular  idiom,  and  if  he  usually  follows  it,  the  presumption  is 
certainly  in  favour  of  it,  when  other  things  are  equal.  But  if  zqj  is  to 
be  admitted  here,  it  may,  as  a  last  resort,  be  regarded  as  the  Dattvus 
commodi,  which  would  make  argood  sense  ;  just  as,  in  the  history  of  Ba- 
laam, Num.  22:  6,  Balak  says  to  the  prophet,  Jlgaoai  fiot  tov  Xaov 
tovTOv,  curse  for  me  this  people.  So  Bengel ;  and  certainly  it  is 
not  a  strained  exegesis. 

BaXf-lv  ay.dvdalov  is  a  Hebraistic  expression,  and  has  its  origin  in 
the  idiomatic  expressions,  "  way  of  the  righteous,  way  of  the  Lord,  way 
of  wisdom,  etc.,"  in  which  way  all  good  men  are  said  to  walk.  Now  a 
stumbling  block  either  occasions  a  fall,  or  impedes  one's  progress,  when 
placed  on  a  way.  So  temptation  to  sin  is  a  stumbling  block  in  the  way 
of  the  righteous,  or  in  the  path  of  duty.  The  temptations  which  through 
the  counsel  of  Balaam  were  placed  before  the  Hebrews,  occasioned  the 
sin  of  many,  and  the  destruction  of  24,000  by  the  plague,  Num.  25  :  9. 
— UoQvevoai  is  often  used  as  a  generic  word,  in  which  case  it  designates 
pollution  in  general,  without  reference  to  the  state  of  parties  as  married 
or  unmarried. 

fpuysiv  tidcoXo&VTa.  A  feast  upon  the  viands  which  had  been  offered 
to  an  idol,  where  gluttony  and  rioting  were  common,  which  feast  was 


^ 


^  CHURCH  AT  PER0AJ103 :    ChAP.    11.  15.  16.  M 

attended  by  numerous  prostitutes  flevoted  to  the  impure  rites  of  idola- 
try, would  almost  necessarily  lead  those  who  joined  in  it  to  idolatry  and 
impurity.  Hence  the  apostolic  decree  in  Acts  15:  28  seq. ;  and  hence 
an  abhorrence  of  sharing  in  such  a  tcjist  is  here  expressed, 

(I.'))  So  tliou  also  liast  those  who  liold  llie  doctrine  of  t)ic  Nicolaitaiis,  in  like 
manner. 

'O^wi'o)^,  at  the  close,  is  best  sujiported,  and  seems  entitled  to  recep- 
tion. Other  readings  are  o  fuxjdi  (Text.  Recept.)  ;  o  (xiaa  ofioiaig ;  ijv 
fiiaoi  ;  oftoidJi;  i,v  fiiam.     Mill  and  Yater  prefer  thq  vulgate  text. 

OvTcOi,',  so,  i.  e.  in  like  manner  as  Balak  retained  a'ftllse  prophet  who 
misled  the  Hebrews,  so  thou  retainest  Balaamites,  i.  e.  those  wlio  teach 
the  things  like  to  those  which  Balaam  taught. —  Tt^v  8idax>i^  '^'^v  A Vxo- 
7.a'niov  I  take  to  moan  the  same  as  the  preceding  t/)j'  diduyJfV  Buhcdft. 
At  least  the  Nicolaitaiis  here  are  plainly  the  same  as  in  v.  6  above ;  so 
that  the  heresy  in  question,  as  it  would  seem,  pervaded  the  churches  at 
Ephesus,  Pergamus,  and  also  Thyatira,  comp.  v.  20,  where  the  sanae 
vices  are  mentioned.  '0^o/cos\  in  like  manner,  i.  e.  the  heretics  among 
you  hold  and  teach  the  doctrine  of  the  Nicolaitans  in  like  manner  as 
Balaam  held  and  taught  his  doctrine  ;  in  other  words,  they  teach  so  as 
to  lead  some  to  eat  things  sacrificed  to  idols  and  to  commit  fornication. 
How  any  bearing  the  name  of  Christians  could  teach  thus,  it  is  difficult 
at  first  to  imagine ;  but  see  the  remarks  on  this  subject,  under  v.  6. 
above. 

I  do  not  feel  ^uite  sure,  aftej  all,  that,.the  speaker  in  this  case  does 
not  mean  to  aver/tluit  thwe  are  two  classes  oflieretics,  in  the  bosom  of 
the  church  at  Pergamos.  If  so,  then  we  have  nothing,  either  in  v.  6. 
or  V.  15,  which  defines  the  errors  of  the  Nicolaitans.  INIorcover,  on 
this  ground  they  would  seem  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Balaamites — 
ho^p  distinguished,  we  have  only  uncertain  tradition  to  determine.  On 
the  whole,  however,  a  comparison  of  vs.  6,  13,  14,  and  20,  leaves  the 
im|>ression  on  my  mind,  that  the  same  pestilential  heresy  existed  in 
each  of  the  three  respective  churches,  and  that  it  was  a  matter  of  indif- 
ference, whether  it  was  named  the  doctrine  of  Balaam,  or  the  doctrine 
of  the  Nicolaitans,  inasmuch  as  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  appellatives 
(Balaam  and  Nicolaus)  have  one  and  the  same  meaning.  The  suppo- 
sition of  two  heretical  sects,  makes  our  text  at  first  view  more-facile  of 
interpretation ;  but  the  other  exegesis  given  above,  seems  to  be  capa- 
pablc  of  a  good  defence. 

(IG)  Repent  therefore  ;  and  if  thou  dost  not,  1  will  come  to  thee  quickly,  and 
make  war  with  them  by  the  sword  of  my  mouth. 

2^01,  to  thee.,  i.  e.  the  Saviour  announces  his  intention  to  visit  that  church. 


76  CHURCH  AT  PERGAMOS  :  ChAP.  11.  17. 

Yet  extreme  punishment  is  not  designed  for  the  whole  ;  for  he  says 
nohfii^aa)  iiet  avzav,  i.  e.  with  the  Nicolaitans.  I  have  retained 
the  manner  of  the  original  in  my  version,  because  it  may  be  retained 
consistently  with  our  idiom.  But  we  should  more  readily  express  the 
sentiment  thus :  I  will  war  against  them  with  the  sword  of  my  mouth. 
'PofKfdtav  Tov  GTOfiuTog  is  the  sword  before  mentioned  in  v.  12  above, 
and  also  in  1:  16.  Here  the  application  is  such,  that  we  recognize  at 
once  the  nature  and  design  of  the  imagery.  "  He  said,  and  it  was  done  ; 
he  commanded,  and  it  stood  fast."  The  sentence  by  him  of  condemna- 
tion and  excision  is  fatal.  His  sword  can  neither  be  resisted  nor  warded 
oflF;  comp.  Heb.  4:  12.  On  the  nature  of  the  imagery,  see  under  1:  16. 
I  cannot  think,  with  Wetstein  and  Herder,  that  there  is  any  reference 
here  to  the  sword  of  the  angel  who  resisted  Balaam,  Num.  22:  23. 
The  two  cases  are  of  a  tenor  quite  diiFerent. 

(17)  He  who  hath  an  ear,  let  him  hear  what  the  Spirit  saith  unto  the  churches. 
To  him  who  overcometh — to  him  will  I  give  of  the  hidden  manna ;  and  I  will 
give  him  a  white  stone,  and  upon  the  stone  a  new  name  engraved,  which  no  one 
knoweth  except  he  that  receiveth  it. 

On  7(>5  t'(X03V7i  X.  r.  X.,  see  above  on  v.  7. — Tov  ^uvva  tov  xsxQvufiS- 
rov,  a  vivid  image  of  sustenance,  or  rather  of  enjoyment,  in  a  future 
world.  It  is  easy  to  trace  its  soui'ce.  In  Ex.  16;  32 — 34,  God  com- 
mands that  a  pot  of  the  manna  rained  down  upon  the  Israelites  should 
be  gathered,  and  deposited  in  the  ark  of  the  testimony,  for  a  memorial 
to  all  future  generations  of  what  the  Lord  had  done.  Comp.  Heb.  9:  4. 
In  Ps.  78:  24,  25,  manna  is  called  Df^irn  ',5'i  and  t'^'i'^SX  nnb ,  i.  e.  the 
com  of  heaven  and  the  bread  of  the  mighty  ones,  i.  e.  (probably)  of  an- 
gels, as  in  our  English  version.  So  in  Ps.  105:  40,  it  is  called  trib 
'D'^'o^:^ ,  the  bread  of  heaven.  The  excellence  of  this  nourishment  is  thus 
strongly  characterized.  Then,  in  the  next  place,  the  joys  of  the  blessed 
in  a  future  world  are  often  represented  in  the  Scriptures  under  the 
image  of  a  feast ;  see  Hev.  3:  20.  19:  9.  Now  as  manna  was  rained 
down  from  heaven,  and  manna  is  angers  food,  it  is  very  easy  and  nat- 
ural for  the  mind  to  think  of  the  manna  laid  up  in  heaven  (so  to  speak) 
as  being  in  store  for  the  saints,  when  they  shall  be  admitted  to  asso- 
ciate with  the  angels.  Kty-QVfxfitvov  is  to  be  taken  in  the  sense  of  the 
Hebrew  'j^iS^ ,  laid  up,  stored  in  a  safe  and  secret  place.  Still,  the  form 
of  the  expression  has  reference  probably  to  Ex.  16:  32 — 34.  The 
manna,  which  was  deposited  by  divine  command  in  the  ai'k  of  the  cove- 
nant, the  Jews  regarded  as  a  specimen  of  heavenly  food.  Hence  they 
invented  many  fictions  concei'ning  it.  One  was,  that  Jeremiah  the 
prophet,  just  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  commanded  the  tab- 
ernacle [which  the  author  of  this  fiction,  as  it  would  seem,  supposed  was 


CHURCH  AT  PERGAMOS  :    ClIAP.    II.  17.  77 

deposited  in  the  most  Holy  Place],  and  the  ark  of  the  testimony,  and 
the  altar  of  incense,  to  follow  him  to  mount  Sinai ;  and  there  he  hid 
them  in  a  cave,  to  be  bronpht  out  again  only  in   the  days  of  the  Mes- 
siah ;  see  2  Maoo.  2:  4 — 7.     Com]),  with  this  the  apocryphal  story  of 
Jeremiah,  in   Fahr.   Cod.  Apoc.  Y.  Test.  p.  1112   seq.  Abulfar.  Hist. 
Dynast,  p.  57.     The  reader  will  find  an  abundance   of  Rabbinical  pas- 
sages, designed  to  illustrate  and  confirm  this  tradition,  in  Eisenmenger's 
Entdeckt.  Jiulenthum,  II.    p.  8.iG   seq.,  and  in    Wetstein  in  loc,  and 
Schoettgen  llor.  lleb.  in  loc.     In  the  times  of  the  Messiah,  as  it  would 
seem,  the  Jews  expected  that  the  manna  thus  hidden  would  be  discov- 
ered, and  distributed  to  his  followers,  as  well  as  laid  up  again  in   the 
temple.     That  John  however  had  any  reference  to  this  fabulous  tra- 
dition, there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence.     Eichhorn,  as  is   usual  with 
him,  traces  the  expression  in  the  text  to  this  fable ;  but  there  is  enough 
in  tlie  Scriptures,  independently  of  this,  to  account  for  the  figurative  ex- 
pression here  employed.     Why  should   we   suppose   the  writer  to   go 
elsewhere  for  his  sources,  when  he  shows  throughout  his  book  a  mind 
most  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  that  of  all 
sources  they  ai'e  the  most  favourite  one,  and  most  frequently  resorted  to 
by  him  ?     As  the  manna  was  laid  up  in  the  ark,  no  one  could  even  ap- 
proach it  but   the  high-priest,  who,  once  in  each  year,  went  into  the 
most  holy  place  in  order  to  make  atonement.     Yet  even  he  could  not 
taste  of  it.     But  under  the  new  dispensation,  where  all  are  to  be  made 
"kings  and  priests  unto  God,"   Christians  may  enter  for  themselves 
into  the  most  holy  place,  (for  the  veil  is  rent),  and  may  even  partake  of 
the  manna  deposited  there.     Yet  all  this,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  but 
imagery  employed  in  order  to  portray  the  ample  and  delightful  enjoy- 
ments of  the  faithful  in  the  world  to  come. 

'Em  7/)i'  rpijqov  ....  luf^i ^('a'ojv  has  been,  as  it  would  seem,  a  real 
crttx  interpretum.  The  reason  of  this  does  not  appear  to  be  so  much  in 
the  difficulty  of  the  passage  itself,  as  in  the  sources  to  which  resort  has 
been  had  in  order  to  explain  it.  Greek  sources  of  imagery  have  been 
sought  for,  while  only  Hebrew  ones  can  satisfactorily  solve  the  difficulty. 

(1)  Yitringa,Jjange,  and  many  others,  have  referred  to  the  Greek 
usage  of  absolving  those  who  were  tried  on  the  ground  of  any  accusa- 
tion, by  white  balls  or  stones,  and  condemning  by  black  ones.  But  this 
does  not  well  compare  with  the  case  before  us.  There,  the  balls  were 
thrown  into  an  uriTT  here  the  white  stone  is  given  to  the  victor  him- 
self. There,  was  no  inscription  on  the  balls ;  here,  is  a  new  and  secret 
name  inscribed.  We  may  also  add,  that  such  imagery  would  naturally 
convey  the  idea  of  an  accusation  made  on  the  part  of  some  one  against 
the  victor  ;  whereas  it  may  well  be  supposed,  that  the  writer  here  would 
have  been  disposed  to  say,  with  Paul :  r<V  iyauktaei  xara  ixkiAzav 

&SOV? 


78  CHURCH  AT  PERGAMOS  :  Chap.  IL  17. 

(2)  Grotius,  Eichhorn,  and  others,  refer  to  the  tessera  given  to  the 
victor  in  the  Olympic  games,  on  which  was  inscribed  the  reward  to  be 
received  from  his  native  city,  viz.  a  sum  of  money,  public  support,  etc. ; 
and  this  gave  him  a  title  to  the  same.  The  like  custom  also  existed  at 
Rome,  although  somewhat  modified ;  for  the  Roman  emperors  scattered 
tesserae  of  a  similar  nature  among  the  populace,  on  distinguished  occa- 
sions.— But  in  these  cases  the  white  stone  is  wanting ;  and  moreover, 
the  mystic  inscription  which  no  one  but  the  recipient  could  read.  Vi- 
tringa  thinks,  upon  the  whole,  that  both  of  these  sources  are  to  be  united 
on  the  present  occasion.  Let  us  see  if  something  more  satisfactory 
cannot  be  adduced. 

(3)  It  is  a  frequent  and  favourite  idea  with  the  Apocalyptist,  that 
Christians  will  be  made  kings  and  priests  unto  God ;  see  Rev.  1:  6.  5: 
10.  20:  6 ;  comp.  also  Is.  61:  6.  1  Pet.  2:  5.  In  Ex.  28:  36  seq.,  the 
mitre  or  turban  of  the  high-priest  is  described.  On  its  front  was  to  be 
put  a  plate  of  gold,  inscribed  i^iiT^b  ^"ip,  sacred  to  Jehovah.  The  name 
Jehovah  was  the  incommunicable  and  secret  name,  (see  on  Rev.  1:  4 
above),  which  could  be  pronounced  only  by  the  high-pi-iest,  and  was 
known,  as  the  Jews  say,  only  to  him.  Here  then  are  all  the  materials 
for  the  explanation  of  the  passage  before  us.  Victors  in  the  Christian 
strugTle  are  to  be  made  priests,  yea  exalted  as  it  were  to  the  dignity 
of  high-priests ;  for  this  only  would  parallelize  with  the  declaration, 
that  they  are  to  be  made  kings.  Instead  of  a  plate  of  gold  in  their 
mitre  they  are  to  have  a  tohife  stone,  Unjcpov  ).fvy.>jv,  i.  e.  a  pellucid  or 
resplendent  diamond,  (for  U'tirfog  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  a  precious 
stone),  on  which  should  be  an  inscription  equivalent  to  rtin"'b  "cn'p, 
sacred  to  Jehovah.  That  Xevnov  in  the  Apocalypse  has  such  a  mean- 
ing, i.  e.  resplendent  or  pellucid,  as  is  here  ascribed  to  it,  is  clear ;  see 
Comm.  on  Itvmv,  1:  14.  Under  the  new  order  of  things,  i.  e.  since  the 
Messiah's  coming,  the  ancient  inscription  nini^  uinp  is  not,  as  formerly, 
to  be  engraved.  The  name  Aoyoq  (John  1:  1.  Rev.  19:  13)  is  to  be 
written  in  its  room,  in  order  to  denote  that  the  victor  is  a  follower  of  the 
Lamb.  Perhaps  the  expression  does  not  mean,  that  this  identical  word 
shall  be  the  one  which  is  to  be  employed,  but  it  seems  at  least  to  mean, 
that  some  secret  and  sacred  appellation  equivalent  to  Aoyog  shall  be 
inscribed.  Yet  it  seems  safe  to  abide  by  Xoyog,  because,  when  applied 
to  Christ,  it  has  a  secret  or  mystical  sense.  Thus  all  which  has  been 
said  above  respecting  the  secret  name,  o  (av  xai  o  tjv  y.ai  6  iQ](6fiEvog, 
has  a  direct  bearing  upon  this  passage.  The  iieto  name  is  doubtless 
some  name  of  the  Saviour.  Thus  understood,  all  is  perfectly  plain  and 
easy.  Christian  victors  will  wear,  on  the  frontlets  of  their  victory- 
mitres,  the  name  of  their  great  Leader,  the  Captain  of  their  salvation. 
To  him  is  ascribed  an  incommunicable  and  seo-et  name,  just  as  it  is 


4 

CHDBCH  AT  THTATIRA  :  ChAP.  II.  18,  19.  79 

given  to  Jehovah  in  Rev.  1:  4.  This  name  of  the  new  order  of  priests 
(i.  e.  of  Christian  priests  in  a  spiritual  sense)  is  of  course,  and  should 
be,  ditJercnt  from  that  on  the  mitre  of  tlie  high-priests  of  old.  Hence 
orofia  xnipnv. 

Eielihorn  and  others  have  considered  the  xf'tjcfnv  here  merely  as  a 
ticket  of  introduction  to  the  heavenly  feast  of  the  mainia.  But  so  con- 
sidered, the  writer  would  exhibit  a  plain  vareQOv  jiQoreQOV  in  the  collo- 
cation of  his  idejis.  The  clause  in  such  a  case,  ought  to  occupy  the 
penult  and  not  the  ultimate  place  in  the  sentence.  I  understand  the 
connection  of  the  whole  somewhat  differently  from  Eichhorn.  The 
Jewish  high-priest  was  the  only  ])erson  who  could  go  in  where  the 
manna  was  kept,  i.  e.  into  the  most  holy  place.  And  even  he  could 
not  taste  of  it.  See  now  what  Christ  has  done  !  All  his  faithful  follow- 
ers are  not  only  made  high-priests,  and  admitted  where  the  manna  is, 
but  permitted  to  feed  upon  it.  I  may  add,  that  the  expression,  o  ovdf.ig 
oldtr  tt  fiij  6  Xttii^uvMv,  seems  evidently  to  refer  to  the  well  known  fact, 
that  no  one  of  the  Jews,  the  high-priest  excepted,  knew  how  to  pro- 
nounce the  word  irn"'  written  upon  his  mitre.  He  only  who  wore  the 
mitre,  could  pronounce  that  Avord.  So  he  only  who  wears  the  Chris- 
tian diadem  can  read  the  inscription  of  the  7iew  name  upon  it,  and  fully 
understand  it. 

Here  then  we  have,  instead  of  mystic,  confused,  unintelligible  im- 
agery, a  most  glowing  description  of  the  future  reward  of  the  faithful 
followers  of  Christ.  Nor  is  it  any  objection  to  this  explanation,  that 
two  distinct  promises  of  reward  are  here  made, — for  such  is  the  case  in 
other  instances  ;  see  Rev.  2:  26 — 28.  3:  5. 

(Iri)  And  to  the  angel  of  the  church  in  Thyatira  write  :  Thus  saith  the  Son  of 
God,  who  hath  his  eyes  as  a  flame  of"  fire,  and  liis  feet  are  like  polished  brass. 

Seethe  remarks  on  Rev.  1:  14,  from  which  this  passage  is  taken. 
But  here  there  is  a  slight  variation  in  the  construction,  (there  (6g 
q).()i  nvQc^',  here  (og  (fXoyu  TivnOi),  on  account  of  the  Accusative  case 
(6q>\yu).ftovs)  which  precedes.  Avrov  after  oq&aXfiovg  is  of  somewhat 
doubtful  authority;  and  the  sense  is  better  without  it.  The  appellation 
6  vii),'  jnv  dtov,  very  frequent  in  John,  is  employed  only  here  in  the 
Aix)calyp?e.  It  was  an  early  name  of  the  Messiah  ;  see  Ps.  2:  7. 
Enoch  104c:  2. 

(Ul)  I  know  thy  works,  and  love,  and  faith,  and  ministry,  and  thy  patience, 
and  thy  recent  labours  more  abundant  than  thy  former  ones. 

^yuTTijv  should  not  be  restricted  here ;  for  it  appears  to  mean  the 
love  of  God  and  man,  and  diaxoviav  seems  to  be  one  of  the  proper  fruits 
of  it. — niaziv  marks  the  confidence  of  the  church  at  Thyatira  in  the 


80  CHURCH  AT  THTATIRA  :    ChAP.  II.  20. 

doctrines  and  promises  of  the  Christian  religion. — Jiaxoviav  designates 
active  service  in  administering  to  the  necessities  and  wants  of  others, 
particularly  in  the  supply  of  food ;  so  often  in  the  New  Testament, 
see  Lexicon.  Hence  didxovog,  whose  business  it  originally  was  to  over- 
see the  matter  of  distributing  charities,  Acts  vi. — 'Tnofiovi^  is  patient 
endurance  of  the  sorrows  and  troubles  of  life,  and  here  it  has  reference 
specially  to  the  troubles  brought  upon  the  church  by  persecution. 

Tu  fQya  60V  ru  'ioiaru  /..  r.  1.,  i.  e.  in  the  recent  season  of  pressure 
and  distress,  the  church  had,  even  beyond  their  accustomed  efforts,  ex- 
erted themselves  for  the  relief  of  others,  and  shown  in  all  respects  an 
increase  of  the  practical  Christian  graces.  The  first  ra  SQya  in  the 
verse  is  generic.  The  virtues  subsequently  mentioned  are  particulars 
of  the  genus ;  and  they  are  thus  brought  to  view,  because  they  were 
prominent.  So  at  the  close  of  the  verse,  iqya  again  has  a  kind  of 
generic  meaning,  comprising  the  practical  Christian  graces. 

(20)  But  1  have  somewhat  against  thee,  that  thou  dost  leave  unrestrained  thy 
wife  Jezebel,  who  declareth  herself  [to  be]  a  prophetess,  and  teacheth  and  leadeth 
astray  my  servants  to  commit  fornication  and  to  eat  thing-s  sacrificed  to  idols. 

"E-^K)  xurd  60V,  see  on  2:  4. — 'Acfug  2  pers.  sing.  Pres.,  an  unusual 
form,  from  the  old  contract  dcfsw  =  uq)i)ji.u.  The  literal  meaning  is,  to 
let  alone,  to  suffer  or  leave  tmrestrained,  to  permit ;  and  so  I  have  ex- 
pressed it ;  in  the  version  above. 

'le^d^eX,  the  name  of  Ahab's  idolatrous  wife,  who  had  such  an  unhap- 
py influence  over  him,  is  here  plainly  a  symbolical  name ;  but  it  is  very 
expressive.  The  Avoman  here  denoted  had,  as  it  appears,  an  influence 
on  some  in  the  church,  like  to  that  of  Jezebel  on  her  husband. — The 
principal  difficulty  lies  in  calling  this  woman  rz/f  yvvai'Aoi  60v,  thy  wife. 
Whose  wife  is  meant  ?  That  of  the  uyy^log,  understood  merely  as  the 
bishop  or  pastor  of  the  church  ;  or  that  of  the  church  at  large,  who  are 
addressed  through  the  medium  of  the  bishop  ?  If  the  bishop  only  were 
addressed,  we  should  be  obliged  to  suppose  that  his  proper  wife  was  here 
actually  meant.  But  as  it  seems  to  be  certain  that  the  whole  church  are 
addressed  (comp.  v.  10  above  and  also  v.  23),  so  t?}j'  yvvaixd  6ov  can 
mean  only  some  woman  in  it,  whose  influence  is  great  and  also  very  cor- 
rupting. It  would  seem  to  be  the  intimate  relation  which  the  woman 
adverted  to  sustains  to  the  church,  that  appears  to  give  occasion  for  the 
appellation  7rjv  yvvaixd  60v.  The  church  had  power  to  divorce  her,  (if 
we  may  keep  up  the  metaphor)  ;  and  in  view  of  her  character  and  efforts 
they  are  reproved  for  not  doing  so. 

The  heresy  taught  in  this  case,  appears  to  be  the  same  as  that  refer- 
red to  in  2:  6  and  2:  14,  15.  The  woman  in  question,  whose  proper 
name  (probably  from  motives  of  delicacy)  is  withheld,  was  evidently  one 


CHUKCH  AT  THTATIRA  :  ChAP.  II.  21,  22.         81 

who  assumed  the  office  of  a  public  teacher  (x««  diSdaxei),  and  gave  her- 
self out  (for  so  it  is  said)  ns  an  authorized  TTQncpiJTi^;.  In  the  primitive 
age  it  was  sometinu-s  a  matter  of  tact,  that  women  taught  and  spoke^in 
public;  4cts  21:  9.  1  Cor.  11:  5.  14:  34.  Rom.  IG:  1.  1  Tim.  2:  11, 12. 
In  1  Cor.  11:  5,  Paul  merely  regulates  public  speaking  by  females,  when 
it  tjikes  place;  in  1  Cor.  14:  34  and  1  Tim.  2:  11,  12,  he  forbids  it,  be- 
cause it  leads  to  indecorum  and  disorder.  Under  tlie  ancient  dispensa- 
tion there  were  several  prophetesses,  such  as  Miriam,  Deborah,  ITulda, 
etc.  The  like  under  the  new;  Acts  21:  9.  1  Cor.  11:5.  Whether  the 
Jezebel  in  this  case  did  hovB^cK practise  what  she  taiiglit,  is  not,  perhaps, 
expressly  said ;  but  it  seems  to  be  somewhat  plainly  intimated  (v.  23)  ; 
and  indeed  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  suppose,  that  a  woman  would  teach 
such  things  without  practising  them.  Practice  must  precede  such  a 
thorough  depravation  of  princii)le  and  abandonment  of  modesty  and  de- 
cency. 

(21)  And  I  have  given  her  time  tliat  she  miirht  repent,  and  yet  she  will  not  re- 
pent of  her  fornication. 

"Edcoy.a  XQOvov  of  course  shows  that  the  error  in  question  had  been  of 
some  standing.  Forbearance  had  already  been  exercised,  and  the  time 
was  now  come  in  which  other  measures  would  be  resorted  to. — TlnQvdag 
avTijg  may  possibly  mean  the  corrupt  and  abominable  doctrines  which 
she  taught ;  but  it  seems  likely,  as  above  intimated,  that  doctrine  and 
practice  went  together.  In  respect  to  ^lezavoFjoui  ix,  see  remarks  on  the 
next  verse. 

(2"^)  Behold,  1  cast  her  upon  a  bed,  and  those  who  have  committed  adultery 
with  her  into  great  affliction,  unless  they  repent  of  her  deeds. 

BuXXco  etg  xXivrjv  means  to  cast  her  upon  a  sick-bed,  or  (as  we  say) 
make  her  bed-ridd  So  ^uXXta  alone  in  Matt.  8:  6, 14.  Matt.  9:  2,  im 
y.h'ri^i,'  ^f:p,r,u.^vov  means  the  same.  So  t^t'^Xijro  in  Luke  16:  20,  de- 
notes the  languishing  state  of  Lazarus.  But  here  ^dlXw  tig  y.Xiv>iv 
makes  an  antithesis  to  the  noQvtia  of  the  preceding  verse,  and  forms  a 
kind  of  mental  antanaclasis.  The  harlot's  bed  and  the  bed  of  sickness 
and  distress  are  placed  in  contrast,  in  the  way  of  implication. 

OXiuiii'  layuXr^v  corresponds  in  sense  with,  and  therefore  explains, 
^uXXo)  eig  xlivtjv. — Mtravotjaaniv  ix,  a  construction  peculiar  to  this  book ; 
see  in  V.  21  above.  In  the  Hebrew,  Dns  is  sometimes  followed  bp  p  = 
fx,  see  Ges.  Lex.,  also  in  9:  20,  21.  16:  11.  Once  with  utio  in  Acts  8: 
22.  In  all  other  cases  the  verb  is  used  absolutely  and  in  an  intransitive 
sen^e.  In  English  we  may  say :  He  will  repent  this,  or.  He  will  repent 
of  this.  The  latter  idiom  is  exhibited  in  the  Apocalypse.  Repent  of 
her  deeds  means,  repeat  of  such  deeds  as  hers. 

TOL.  n.  11 


82  CHURCH  AT  THYATIRA  :  ChAP.  II.  23,  24. 

(23)  And  her  children  will  I  slay  by  deadly  disease,  and  all  the  churches  shall 
know  that  1  am  he  who  searcheth  the  reins  and  the  heart;  and  I  will  render  to 
you — to  each  one — according  to  your  works. 

Ta  riv.va  avzrig  ano-Aieva,  lit.  children,  or  figuratively  ?  The  latter 
I  should  deem  most  probable  here  ;  for  ri'A.va  seems  to  include  all  who 
had  imbibed  her  sentiments.  "  Ye  are  of  your  father,  the  devil,"  said  the 
Saviour  to  the  Jews,  i.  e.  ye  are  children  of  Satan.  Still,  if  t«  rty.va  is 
to  be  taken  literally,  and  in  distinction  from  zoy*  fioiysvovrag  (v.  22),  then 
the  threat  will  be  like  that  in  2  K.  9:  7 — 9.  Ex.  20: 5  ;  and  it  involves 
the  idea  of  severe  punishment.  Treason  has,  in  almost  all  countries  of 
the  East,  been  followed  witla  the  extirpation  of  the  whole  family  connect- 
ed with  the  culprit.  The  allusion  here  would  be  to  the  severe  punish- 
ment usually  consequent  on  high  misdemeanours. 

'Et>  ■&avuT(p,  with  pestilence  or  deadly  disease.  So  in  6:  8.  18:  8. 
QuvuTog  =  the  Heb.  ^an ;  see  Septuagint  &drarog  for  ^21  in  2  Sam. 
24:  13.  So  the  Syriac  and  Rabbinic  xniti,  in  the  same  sense.  Deadly 
disease  is  the  version  which  most  exactly  corresjtonds  to  &dvarog  here. 

ndaai  ui  i'AxhjGi'ai.  .  .  .  y.aQdiug.  Here  the  speaker  claims  the  pre- 
rogative oi  omniscience ;  comp.  Ps.  7:  9.  1  Sam.  16:  7.  1  Chron.  28:  9. 
Ps.  139:  1.  Jer.  11:  20.  17:  10.  20:  12.  That  is:  'I  will  make  all  the 
churches  to  understand,  that  I  know  all,  even  the  most  secret,  acts  of 
wickedness  committed  in  the  midst  of  them,  however  concealed  from 
human  view.  All  the  thoughts  of  the  heart  are  naked  and  open  to  my 
view.' 

'Tfiiv,  to  you  collectively  ;  ixuarcp,  to  each  individual  particularly  and 
personally.     'Exdarcp  renders  the  expression  more  emphatic. 

(24)  But  I  say  to  you,  the  remainder  who  are  in  Thyatira,  so  many  as  hold  not 
this  doctrine,  who  have  not  known  the  depths  (of  Satan),  as  they  say,  on  you  I 
lay  no  other  burden. 

Tori,"  lEinoTg  x.  r.  1.,  i.  e.  to  all  of  the  church  not  involved  in  the 
charges  already  made,  I  utter  no  words  of  commination,  but  only  of  ex- 
hortation and  promise. — Ova  i'xovai,  do  not  hold,  i.  e.  possess,  entertain, 
retain. 

Bu&ea,  depths,  i.  e.  mysteries,  or  deep  and  therefore  secret  things 
which  can  be  understood  only  by  [ivozui ;  with  evident  allusion  to  the 
common  views  of  the  heathen  respecting  their  mysteries,  e.  g.  the  mys- 
teries of  Eleusis,  etc.  The  heretics  here  stigmatized  undoubtedly  pre- 
tended to  a  deeper,  i.  e.  more  profound,  knowledge  of  Christianity  than 
others  ;  and  by  virtue  of  such  knowledge  they  had  attained,  as  they  also 
pretended,  to  a  conviction,  that  the  eating  of  idol-sacrifices  and  the  grati- 
fication of  their  lusts  were  ddtdq)OQa,  q.  d.  matters  of  indifference  in  a 
spiritual  respect — for  what  power,  they  probably  inquired,  could  the 


CHURCH  AT  THYATIRA  :    ChAP.   II.  25.  83 

boify  have  over  the  immortal  mind?  The  common  English  version — 
*'  the  depths  of  Satan,  as  they  say  " — would  represent  the  heretics  in 
question  as  themselves  giving  such  an  appeUation  to  tlieir  own  fancied 
mysteries.  Evidently  they  would  not  have  so  named  them,  that  is,  they 
would  not  have  introduced  the  name  of  Satan  in  connection  with  them; 
for  this  would  at  once  hotli  condemn  them  and  render  them  odious  in 
the  eyes  of  others.  J'ov  ^.'ecravd,  therefore,  is  evidently  a  characteriz- 
ing expression  thrown  in  by  the  speaker,  and  is  to  be  read  and  consid- 
ered as  I  have  marked  it,  viz.  in  the  way  of  parenthesis.  So  Vitringa; 
and  so  Ewald,  who  translates  :  "  ^Mysteria,  quae  dicunt,  rcvera  Satanae." 

This  mention  of  jtretended  ^utfta  in  the  doctrines  of  these  heretics 
reminds  us  forcibly  of  Gnostic  fivariiQia,  the  leaven  of  which  sect  would 
seem  to  have  ah-eady  begun  its  fermentation.  TertuUian  (at  the  close 
of  the  second  century)  thus  characterizes  some  of  that  sect :  Si  bona 
fide  quaeras,  concreto  vultu,  suspenso  supercilio :  Altum  kst,  aiunt. 
Adv.  Val.  c.  1.  Irenaeus  also  says  of  them  :  Qui  profunda  Bythi  adin- 
venisse  se  dicant ;  and  again :  Profunda  Dei  adinvenisse  se  dicentes ; 
Cont,  Haer.  II.  38,  39  (edit.  Massuet,  II.  22). 

If,  instead  of  I'eferring  toj,'  Xtyovai  to  the  heretics,  we  refer  it  to  the 
name  given  to  their  mysteries  by  the  advei'se  party,  then  there  would 
be  no  need  of  construing  the  passage  as  I  have  done  above.  The  sen- 
timent would  then  run  thus  :  '  Who  have  not  known  the  depths  of  Sa- 
tan, as  men  are  accustomed  to  name  them.'  It  is  very  probable,  that 
the  zealous  Christians  here  (see  v.  19)  would  bestow  on  the  pretended 
mysteries  such  an  appellation.  But  the  change  of  person  from  vfiTp  in 
the  beginning  of  the  verse,  to  the  third  pers.  plur.  here,  is  against  this 
solution. 

JllXo  ^UQO-;,  any  ot/ier  burden;  comp.  Matt.  20:  12,  and  ^3^  in  Is. 
21:  15.  Eichhorn  understands  ^uoo^  figuratively  of  precept,  and  com- 
pares Matt.  11:  30.  23:  4.  But  in  the  passage  before  us  the  speaker 
has  not  been  uttering  precepts  ;  and  what  could  (iXXo  mean,  on  such  a 
ground  as  Eichhorn's  ?  On  the  other  hand  ;  commination  he  has  utter- 
ed. The  difficulties  arising  naturally  from  the  then  existing  state  of 
things,  and  which  would  ensue  upon  the  expurgation  of  the  church,  were 
all  which  the  Loi'd  Jesus  thought  proper  to  burden  the  church  of  Thya- 
tira  with,  at  the  time  when  he  thus  addressed  them.  This  appears  to 
be  the  plain  and  simple  meaning  of  the  passage. 

(20)  Nevertheless,  hold  fast  that  which  ye  have,  until  I  shall  come. 

"While  he  imposes  no  penalty  upon  the  faithful  party,  he  still  exhorts 
them  to  remain  firm  and  unwavering  in  their  present  love,  and  faith, 
and  good  works.  Under  temptations  such  as  assailed  them,  they  had 
special  need  of  caution  in  this  respect. 


^4^\ 


84  CHtJRCH  AT  THTATIRA  :    ChAP.    IL  26,  27. 

yiXQ^?  ov  av  tj^co,  i.  e.  shall  come  to  vindicate  the  faithful,  and  punish 
transgressors.  The  time  was  not  far  distant  when  they  might  expect 
this.  But  the  use  of  Aor.  I,  Subj.  hei'e,  (ij^oj),  with  civ,  intimates  that 
the  time  of  coming  is  left  undetermined ;  it  may  be  sooner  or  later. 
The  design  of  the  speaker  is  to  leave  it  undefined,  in  order  to  promote 
watchfulness. 

(26)  And  as  to  him  who  overcometh,  and  watchfully  performeth  until  the  end 
the  works  which  I  require — to  him  will  I  give  authority  over  the  nations. 

O  vi'Acov  and  o  zrjoav  are  plainly  the  Nominative  absolute,  so  common 
in  the  Old  Testament  and  not  unfrequent  in  the  New ;  see  Heb.  Gramm. 
§  415 — 417.  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  97.  2. — J^lxQ''  '^^^ovg  used  adverbially, 
and  so  without  the  article.  The  end  of  trial  or  probation,  or  of  life,  is 
here  meant ;  for  the  promise  is  to  each  individual  who  may  be  obedient. 
— Tr^QCJV,  like  the  Hebrew  *TaT^ ,  keep,  observe,  i.  e.  watchfully  perform, 
obey. — "EQya  {a.ov  means,  such  works  as  I  have  prescribed  or  command- 
ed ;  comp.  the  relations  expressed  by  the  Genitive,  N.  Test.  Gramm. 
§  99.  Here  tu  tQja  fiov  is  tacitly  opposed  to  ra,  eQya  'le^d^eX. — 'E^ov- 1 
Giav  im  zojv  tdvwv,  i.  e.  I  will  make  him  king ;  comp.  1:  6  and  the 
texts  there  cited.  Meaning :  '  I  will  give  him  an  exalted  station,  with 
abundance  and  honour  like  those  of  kings ;'  comp.  1  Cor.  4:  7,  8. 

(27)  And  he  shall  rule  them  with  an  iron  sceptre,  as  potter's  vessels  shall  he 
dash  them  in  pieces;  as  I  have  received  of  my  Father. 

The  allusion  here  is  to  Ps.  2:  9,  with  a  slight  change  of  the  verbs 
(from  second  pers.  to  the  third)  in  order  to  adapt  them  to  the  present 
purpose  of  the  speaker.  To  rule  with  a  rod  or  sceptre  of  iron,  is  to  ex- 
ercise a  sovereign  and  irresistible  sway.  In  other  words,  such  dominion 
cannot  be  successfully  opposed  or  rendered  null. —  To  dash  in  pieces  as 
potter's  vessels,  implies  the  complete  subjugation  and  destruction  of  all 
who  oppose. — But  the  reading  awTQi^srai  here  (Praes.)  does  not  seem 
to  couple  well  with  TZOifiuvEi  (Fut.).  ^^vvzQi^ijOtrai,  to  wliich  Griesbach 
attaches  a^ood  degree  of  probability,  seems  more  congruous.  If  this  be 
not  admitted,  th^»-I- should  prefer  to  change  the  accent  over  notjiavEl 
and  write  Tioifidvei,  i.  e.  Present  tense,  which  would  make  both  parts  of 
the  sentence  consentaneous.  As  to  the  Present  being  used  for  the  fu- 
ture, no  serious  difficulty  surely  can  be  urged  here  ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm. 
§  136.  1.  c,  and  Vol.  I.  p.  239,  b.  The  imagery  of  a  potter's  vessel 
struck  by  an  iron  sceptre,  is  a  very  vivid  representation  of  the  dangerous 
and  perishable  condition  of  the  enemies  of  the  church. 
^iig  •Aclyoi  .  .  .  natQog  fiov,  i.  e.  cog  xrlyco  e'tXtjcpa  i^ovaiuv  [from  v.  26J 
Tzoifidveiv  xal  avvTQi'^f.o&ai  naqd  tov  nazQog  fiov,  the  ellipsis  being  easily 
filled  up  from  the  preceding  context.     The  meaning  is,  that  liis  disciples 


CHURCH  AT  SABDIS  :    ChAP.   II.  28.   III.  1.  86 

shall  reign  with  him,  or  be  partners  in  his  kingdom ;  SQC  the  passages 
quoted  under  Rev.  1:  6,  pivrticularly  Luke  22:  29,  30.  2  Tim.  2:  12. 
Rev.  3:  21. — On  the  phnise  e^Xijcpa  x.  r.  X.,  see  the  quotations  under 
Rev.  1:  1,  which  exhibit  the  dependence  of  the  Mediator,  as  such,  upon 
Grod  the  Father. 

(28)  And  I  will  give  to  him  the  morning  star. 

In  chap.  1:  14 — 16,  the  Saviour  is  presented  as  all  resplendent  and 
glorious,  'shining  like  the  sun  in  his  strength.'  In  2  Sara.  21:  17,  Da- 
vid is  called  the  light  of  Israel.  In  Dan.  12:  3,  the  wise,  it  is  said,  will 
"  shine  as  the  brightness  of  the  tirmament  [the  sun],  .  .  .  and  as  the 
stars  forever  and  ever."  In  Dan.  8:  10,  those  are  called  the  host  of  hea- 
ven and  the  stars,  who  perform  service  in  the  temple  of  God,  and  who 
will  be  cast  down  by  Antiochus.  The  king  of  Babylon  is  compared  to 
the  morning  star,  on  account  of  splendour,  in  Is.  14:  12.  In  Num.  24: 
17,  Balaam  prophecies  that  a  Star  shall  arise  out  of  Jacob,  i.  e.  the 
Messiah.  Now  as  Jesus  had  just  said,  that  he  would  give  his  faithful 
followers  like  dominion  with  his  own,  so  here  a  splendour  or  glory  like 
his  own  (as  t>4(/'»i^()co;roi,'  or  Mediator),  he  declares  shall  be  imparled  to 
them.  Iivill  give  him  the  morning  star,  then,  means  :  I  will  clothe  him 
with  radiance  like  that  of  the  morning  star,  i.  e.  I  will  make  him  all 
bright  and  glorious.  Observe  that  the  writer  does  not  say  :  doidco  avzm, 
etc.,  as  merely  equivalent  to  i)-/)(Tco  uvtov,  etc.,  i.  e.  I  will  make  him  a 
morning  stai",  but  his  meaning  is,  /  will  give  him  the  radiance  of  the 
morning  star.  Comp.  Rev.  12: 1,  the  woman  clothed  with  the  sun  ;  also 
Ps.  104:  2,  "  'Who  coverest  thyself  with  light,  as  with  a  garment."  See 
also  Rev.  22:  16,  where  Christ  himself  is  called  the  morning  star,  i.  e. 
all  splendid  and  glorious.  Daubuz  (Comm.  in  loc.)  says  the  meaning 
is :  '  I  will  make  him  partaker  of  the  first  resurrection  (Rev.  20^  6), 
which  is  the  morning  star  to  the  second.'  iJ"tl'^^  v-v/'o^.^^    11^.  |  0  5  7  « 

CHAPTER  III. 

(1)  And  to  the  angel  of  the  church  in  Sardis  write  :  Thus  saith  he  who  hath 
the  seven  spirits  of  God,  and  the  seven  stars.  I  know  thy  works  ;  that  thou  hast 
a  name  that  ihou  livest,  and  art  dead. 

0  f/cof  ru  enrd  nvsvfiara  rot}  {}eoiJ.  Are  these  attributes  merely  of 
himself,  i.  e.  is  he  represented  here  as  a  mere  Spiritus  septiformis  f 
Or  as  having  the  seven  presence  angels  under  his  control,  or  at  his  dis- 
posal— having  them  as  his  attendants  and  the  ministers  of  his  will  ? 
Beyond  all  reasonable  doubt  the  latter ;  for,  on  the  other  ground,  how 
are  we  to  interpret  the  next  clause,  [^y/(ov^  roiib"  iTtzu  uaziQU^'  ?  These, 
surely  are  not  attributes  of  the  Saviour,  but  symbols  of  the  seven  uyyi- 


86  CHURCH  AT  SARDIS  :    ChAP.   III.  1. 

Xoi  of  the  churches,  comp.  1:  20.  As  to  the  seven  angels  before  the 
throne  of  God,  see  under  1:  4,  and  comp.  here  Rev.  8:  2,  and  4:  5.  In 
this  last  passage,  the  seven  lamps  before  the  throne  of  God,  are  said  to 
be  the  seven  spirits  of  God ;  or,  reversing  the  order  of  the  declaration 
for  the  sake  of  perspicuity,  the  seven  spirits  of  God  are  seven  burning, 
i.  e.  sliining  or  resplendent  lights  ;  for  the  expression  means  all  radiajit 
like  the  flame  of  lamps.  That  such  is  the  meaning,  seems  plain  from  a 
comparison  of  other  like  passages ;  e.  g.  in  Ezek.  1:  13,  the  living 
creatures,  who  support  the  throne  of  God  and  convey  it  instantaneously 
to  any  part  of  the  universe,  are  said  to  be  like  burning  coals  of  fire,  and 
like  the  appearance  of  lamps.  So  in  Is.  6:  1,  the  Seraphim  (c^Enb  from 
Sj'nb,  exurere,  comburere),  i.  e.  the  bright  or  shining  ones,  ardentes,  lu- 
centes,  surround  the  throne  of  God.  In  Zech.  3:  9.  4:  10  and  Rev.  5: 
6,  another  like  symbol  is  employed,  viz.  that  of  seven  eyes  running  to 
and  fro  through  the  whole  earth ;  the  mode  of  conception  here  being 
that  which  forms  an  image  of  bright,  sparkling,  or  resplendent  eyes 
(see  Rev.  2:  18),  which  throw  radiance  on  every  part  of  the  universe 
and  make  all  things  plain  and  conspicuous.  But  here,  the  seven  eyes  \ 
are  indicative  of  properties  belonging  to  him  who  possesses  them ;  and 
in  this  respect  they  dilFer  from  the  preceding  passages  which  refer  to 
angels  ;  comp.  Rev.  2:  18.  The  meaning  in  all  the  preceding  passages 
which  respect  angels,  is  substantially  the  same,  viz.,  that  angels  of  the 
highest  rank,  those  glorious  beings  who  stand  immediately  before  the 
throne  of  God,  are  in  attendance  on  the  divine  Majesty,  or  (as  here) 
on  the  Saviour,  and  are  "  swift  to  do  his  will."  Supreme  power  in  him 
whose  servants  they  are,  is  thus  significantly  designated. — As  to  t/av, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  more  usual  signification  is  given  to  it  by 
this  interpretation.  At  any  rate  the  next  clause  shows,  that  the  pos- 
sessio7i  here  does  not  relate  to  the  possession  of  attributes  but  to  a  poicer 
of  disposal.  Thus,  as  Eichhom,  Heinrichs,  and  Ewald,  all  testify,  the 
Apocalyptist  attributes  to  the  Saviour  the  same  prerogatives  as  he  does 
to  the  supreme  Godhead.  In  Enoch  48  5  :  2,  3,  the  Messiah  is  repre- 
sented as  having  three  spirits  dwelling  in  him.  Comp.  also  60:  13,  ib. 
Tovg  mra  dartQag,  see  on  1:  16. — "On  x.  r.  I.,  before  on  the  verb 
oida  is  of  course  implied. — "Ovofia,  here,  a  name  and  nothing  more,  as 
the  sequel  shows. — "On  ^yg,  we  should  express  the  clause  in  English 
thus  :  '  That  thou  hast  a  name  to  live.'  So  the  Greek  might  have  been  ; 
but  nothing  is  more  common  than  on  after  verbs  of  knowing,  saying, 
reporting,  etc. — Z^g  Indicative  Praes.  and  always  of  this  pecuhar 
form,  in  the  New  Testament ;  see  Lexicon.  The  sense  here  is  of 
course  a  spiritual  one. — A'exQog,  dead  spiritually ;  a  common  idiom, 
to  designate  those  who  are  cold  and  stupid  with  respect  to  spiritual 
things,  and  specially  those  who  are  in  an  unregenerate  state,  Eph.  2: 1, 


*/* 


CHURCH  AT  SARDis :  Chap.  III.  2,  3.  87 

5.  Col.  2:  13.  Rom.  G:  13.  Matt.  8:  22.  The  word  vexQog  is  here  used 
in  a  modified  sense ;  for  the  speaker  does  not  mean  to  deny  that  thiiro 
are  some  Christians  at  Sardis.  "What  he  means  to  say  is,  that  they  are 
genenJly  in  a  cold  mid  hfeless  state. 

(2)  Be  watchful,  and  strengthen  wliat  remains  and  is  ready  to  die  ;  for  I  have 
not  found  thy  works  perfect  before  God. 

rnrjoQbSv,  watchful  or  woleful,  in  opposition  to  the  drowsy  condition 
of  the  chiu'ch. — 2.TtlQiaov,  strengthen  or  confirm,  viz.  that  which  is  now 
appai'ently  weak  and  ineiiicient,  i.  e.  rouse  up  into  active  and  living 
energy. — Ta  ).oinu,  lit.  remaining  things,  i.  e.  the  Christian  graces  or 
virtues  which  now  seem  ready  to  expire. 

Fun — i.  e.  do  so,  for  I  have  not  found,  etc. ;  or,  I  say  this, /or  or  he- 
cause,  etc. — ThnhiQOjfit't'u,  complete,  \\\.fidl,  i.  e.  in  the  sense  of  being 
complete  in  all  respects,  la  other  words  :  Thy  works  are  not  such,  in 
the  sight  of  God,  as  comport  with  the  high  demands  of  Christian  faith. 
— 'Erwmnv  tov  deov  admonishes  them,  that  "  the  Lord  seeth  not  as  man 
seeth ;"  he  looks  on  the  heart  and  forms  a  true  judgment,  not  being 
misled,  as  men  are,  by  appearances  and  professions. — Dlov,  see  remarks 
on  fiov  used  in  the  same  connection,  in  2:  7. 

(3)  Remember,  there  fore,  liow  thou  hast  learned  and  heard,  and  keep  [tliose 
things]  in  mind,  and  repent.  If  now  tliou  siiouldest  not  be  watchful,  I  will  come 
as  a  thief,  and  thou  shall  nut  know  in  what  hour  I  will  come  upon  thee. 

77cos'  may  signify  in  what  manner,  how,  in  which  case  it  probably 
designates  something  peculiar  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  church  at 
Sai-dis  had  been  taught  the  gospel.  Such  would  be  the  ordinary  signi- 
fication of  the  word.  But  it  might,  perhaps,  be  construed  adverbially 
here  as  an  intensive ;  e.  g.  Luke  12:  50,  nag  cvvt')^Ofiai,  how  greatly 
am  I  distressed !  John  11:  36,  ;rojs,-  icfiilti  avz6v,hoiv  much  he  loved  him. 
»So  here :  Remember  how  much  thou  hast  learned  and  heard.  But  I 
apprehend  that  ncog  is  used  as  a  simple  intensive  only  with  verbs  which 
imply /ec/in^r.  The  other  vmode_ii£-«xegesis  comes  to  the  same  sense 
substantially,  although  the  idea  conveyed  is  indefinite  and  generic,  i.  e. 
the  reader  is  not  expressly  informed  of  the  manner  in  which  they  had 
been  taught,  but  the  implication  is,  that  it  was  unusually  good. 

EtXr^qag  (from  Xa^^dpo3)  is  sometimes  employed  for  receiving  in  the 
way  of  a  learner,  e.  g.  Diod.  Sic.  II.  29  ;  and  in  1  Cor.  11:  23.  15:  3 
al.,  the  same  meaning  is  given  to  7ianu).uu^avbi.  So  n;?b  in  Hebrew ; 
also  n-b  ,  doctrina,  scientia,  quasi  )SjH'tg.  So  the  converse  of  ).afiduvo3, 
viz.  dt'dojfit,  often  means  to  impart  instruction. — "Hy.ovaag  refers  to  the 
oral  instruction  which  had  been  imparted,  and  which  they  had  heard. 

Tr^nti,  keep  in  mind,  (see  on  Tr^QovvTei;  1:  3),  i.  e.  keep  in  mind  what 


88  CHURCH  AT  SARDis :  Chap.  III.  4. 

thou  hast  heard  and  been  taught. — Mszavor^Gov,  repent  of  your  present 
cold  and  lifeless  state. — Ovv  may  be  rendered  here  as  a  coniinuative. 
It  marks  additional  matter,  dependent  on,  or  connected  with,  what  goes 
before;  so  that  iav  oyj' must  be  rendered,  «/"  moreover,  if  now. — '  ^g 
'AltTtzijg  designates  the  idea  of  a  sudden  and  unexpected  coming,  Uke 
that  of  a  thief  in  the  dead  of  night.  In  Joel  2:  9  it  characterizes  the 
sudden  invasion  of  the  locusts.  Comp.  Matt.  24:  43.  Luke  12:  39,  40. 
1  Thess.  5:  4.  2  Pet.  3:  10.  Rev.  16:  15.  With  us  the  image  in  itself 
would  seem  to  be  of  a  forbidding  nature,  because  yXtnitiQ  is  an  odious 
personage.  The  frequency  of  this  comparison  in  the  Scriptures,  how- 
ever, shows  how  much  the^  taste  is  modified  by  usage.  It  also  shows, 
what  is  elsewhere  generally  the  case,  that  comparisons  are  to  be  extend- 
ed, for  the  most  part,  only  to  one  single  leading  point  or  particular.  If 
we  should  extend  the  comparison,  in  the  present  case,  beyond  the  simple 
point  of  sudden  and  unexpected  coming,  it  would  become  odious  and  un- 
just. It  should  however  be  noted,  that  it  is  only  when  punishment  is 
threatened,  that  such  a  coming  is  designated  by  the  sacred  writers.  The 
comparison  as  to  the  single  point  intended,  is  undoubtedly  a  strong  and  "^ 
forcible  one  ;  and  this  is  illustrated  by  the  sequel  of  the  passage  before 
us  :  na)  ov  ^rj  yvwg  x.  r.  X.  The  taste  which  now  prevails  in  the  west- 
ern world  would  doubtless  have  led  to  the  selection  of  a  different  object 
for  comparison,  on  an  occasion  like  the  present ;  but  such  a  choice  was 
sanctioned  by  Hebrew  usage,  and  was  in  accordance  with  the  usics  lo- 
quendi  of  the  day  ;  which  is  a  sufficient  justification  of  the  Apocalyptist. 
On  ov  ^ir]  yvojg  (Aor.  II.  Subj.),  see  Gi'amm.  §  148.  4.  As  to  TZoiav 
aQav,  Accusative  of  time  when,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  249. 

(4)  But  still,  thou  hast  a  few  names  in  Sardis,  who  have  not  defiled  their  gar- 
ments; and  they  shall  walk  with  me  in  white,  for  they  are  worthy. 

"E^fig,  thou  posscssest,  i.  e.  there  are  among  you. — 'Ovofiata  here  for 
persons,  individuals  ;  comp.  Acts  1:  15.  Rev.  11:  13,  for  the  like  usage. 
In  Hebrew  D'lJ ,  in  cases  almost  without  number,  is  used  as  a  kind  of  pe- 
riphrasis for  God  or  Jehovah,  sometimes  absolutely,  and  sometimes  fol- 
lowed by  the  word  God  or  Jehovah  ;  e.  g.  those  who  love  thy  name,  Ps. 
5:  11,  12.  My  name  is  in  him,  Ex.  23:  21.  My  name  shall  be  there 
[in  the  temple],  1  K.  8:  29.  So,  to  call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord ;  to 
praise  the  name  of  the  Lord  ;  the  name  of  the  God  of  Jacob  defend  thee ; 
the  name  of  the  Lord  is  a  strong  tower,  etc.  In  the  New  Testament 
this  idiom  abounds  even  still  more ;  see  Rob.  Lex.  6VojU«,  d.  Thus,  to 
believe  in  his  name  ;  trust  in  his  name  ;  do  this  or  that  for  his  name's 
sake ;  be  baptized  into  his  name,  or  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  etc. ; 
to  assemble  in  his  name  ;  suffer  for  his  name,  etc.  Even  without  a  suf- 
fix pronoun,  or  a  Gen.  following,  Dia  is  used  for  God,  in  Lev.  24:  11,  16, 


CHTRCH  AT  SARDIS :    ChAP.   III.  4.  89 

comp.  Dcut.  28:  58.  'Ovonnra  and  ri"S"r  (in  the  plural)  appear  to  be 
employed  in  such  a  sense,  only  when  some  enumerntion  is  supjioscd  to 
take  place;  comp.  Num.  1:  2,  18,  20.  3:  40,  43.  2G:  53,  and  also  Acts 
1:  15.  Rev.  11:  13.,  So  here,  the  adjective  oXlya  implies  some  kind  of 
enumeration,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  fact  which  it  asserts. 

"1^/  ovx  fftoh'vav  .  .  .  avzoov.  Clean  white  garments  are  very  natural 
emblems  of  innocence,  and  have  been  extensively  spoken  of  as  such 
among  many  nations.  Hence  to  be  clothed  with  polluted  garments,  i.  e. 
garments  soiled,  stained,  etc.,  is  an  emblem  of  a  character  which  is  soil- 
ed or  polluted,  see  Zech.  3:  3  seq. 

Kca  7ifninaTt]aov(ii  .  .  .  iv  J.ev/.oi'i',  i.  e.  inasmuch  as  they  have  remain- 
ed pure  and  uncontaminated,  they  shall  enjoy  the  reward  of  so  doing,  by 
a  continued  and  permanent  state  of  purity  and  glory  with  the  Redeemer 
in  the  world  to  come.  The  source  of  the  metaphorical  language  iv  lev- 
aoTg,  may  be  easily  explained.  The  priests  were  required  to  clothe 
themselves  in  white  linen.  Lev.  IG:  4.  Ex.  28:  39,  42.  Lev.  G:  10.  In 
like  manner  the  saints  in  the  world  of  glory  are  to  be  clad.  Rev.  G:  11. 
7:  9.  19:  8,  where  the  ^vooirov  is  said  to  be  r«  8iy.ai(6fiaTa  rojv  nyt'cov, 
i.  e.  to  be  an  emblem  of  dixaioifiuza.  Or  it  may  be  illustrated  in  anoth- 
er way.  In  Heb.  *nw  means  to  be  white  ;  "lin  white  linen  ;  d'^nin  inge- 
niti,  nobiles,  so  called  because  they  wore  vestments  of  this  material.     I 

am  aware  that  Gesenius  refers  this  to  the  Arabic  ^». ,  ingenuus  fuit ; 

but  as  the  Hebrew  verb  T^n  has  no  such  sense,  and  the  other  derivation 
(from  nin)  is  easy  and  obvious,  it  seems  to  me  preferable.  As  the  first 
method  of  explaining  fV  P.ivxor,' would  represent  the  faithful  as  being 
priests  to  God,  so  the  second  designates  them  as  princes  or  kings.  Both 
ideas  are  common  to  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  reader  may  choose  which 
he  pleases.  I  give  the  preference  to  the  former,  because  the  becoming 
jonWs  seems  to  be  a  favourite  trope  with  the  writer;  comp.  2:  17,  and  texts 
cited  under  1:  G.  Comp.  also  Acts  1:  10.  Matt.  28:  3.  Acts  10:  30.  Mark 
IG:  5.  Luke  24:  4,  for  illustration  of  the  general  nature  of  the  imagery. 
Contemporary  writers  employ  the  like  imagery  abundantly  and  for  similar 
purposes ;  Enoch  89:  41,  42,  45,  46.  That  white  and  splendid  vest- 
ments are  laid  up  in  heaven  for  the  faitliful,  is  a  common  idea  among 
writers  of  this  description,  and  among  the  Rabbins  ;  see  4  Ezra  2:  39, 
44,  45.  Enoch  61:  18.  Ascens.  Is.  3:  25.  4:  16.  8:  26.  9:  9,  25.  Zohar 
(Amst.)  I.  66.  II.  210.  Eisenm.  Jud.  IL  p.  310.  Schottg.  Hor.  Heb. 
in  loc. 

"u-ihol  tiniv,  i.  e.  by  a  pure  and  unspotted  life,  they  have  manifested  a 
fitness  for  such  a  reward. —  To  walk  with  the  Redeemer  means  here  to  be 
associated  with  him  in  the  world  to  come,  and  to  participate  in  his  glory. 
Perhaps  there  is  an  allusion  to   Zech.  3:  7,  "  I  will  give  thee  S'^sbrra 

VOL.  II.  12 


90  CHURCH  AT  PHILADELPHIA  :    ChAP.   III.  5,  7. 

{n£Qi7iarovvt£g)  among  those  who  stand  here,"  i.  e.  the  guardian  angels 
of  the  temple  shall  accompany  thee  and  protect  thee. 

(5)  He  that  overcometh — the  same  shall  be  clothed  in  white  vestments  ;  and  I 
will  not  blot  out  his  name  from  the  book  of  life,  and  I  will  acknowledge  his  name 
before  my  Father,  and  before  his  angels. 

0  vixav,  Nom.  abs.,  see  Gramm.  §  97.  2.     The  insertion  of  ovro? hei'e 
before  the  verb,  is  designed  to  give  emphasis  ;  Gramm.  §  123.  1. 

Ov  firj  i^'.ilEi'ipoj  .  .  .  rijg  ^ojiig,  I  will  not  blot  out,  i.  e.  I  will  suffer  to 
remain  or  cause  to  be  retained.  The  form  of  expression  is  a  litotes, 
i.  e.  an  affirmative  sense  attached  to  a  negative  form  of  expression. — 
Bl^Xog  ^(otjg  is  a  frequent  idea  in  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 
Heaven  is  first  conceived  of  as  a  city  ;  then  those  admitted  to  dwell  there 
are  citizens  ;  their  names  of  course  are  conceived  of  as  inscribed  in  the 
city-register.  Names  thus  inscribed  in  cities  on  earth,  are  blotted  out 
when  life  ceases,  or  when  crime  is  committed  and  forfeiture  of  privilege 
ensues.  Not  to  he  blotted  out  of  course  implies,  therefore,  continued  life 
and  privilege.  See  and  comp.  Ex.  32:  32.  Is.  4:  3.  Ps.  56:  8.  Dan."^ 
12:  1.  Comp.  also  Rev.  13:  8.  17:  8.  20:  12.  21:  27.  Enoch  105:  21. 
Further  developments  respecting  a  book  in  the  heavenly  archives  in 
which  the  names  and  all  actions  of  men  are  recorded,  will  be  found  in 
Rev.  20:  12.  Dan.  7:  10.  The  book  of  Enoch  is  filled  with  such  views; 
see  47:  3.  88:  104—118.  89:  21,  25,  30—33.  96:  16.  99:  4.  103:  1,  2. 
105:  16,  17,  23.     So  also  4  Ezra  6:  20.  Ascens.  Is.  9:  22. 

'OnoXoyrjoo)  to  oVojmcc  uvtov,  I  will  openly  or  publicly  declare  or  ac- 
knowledge his  NAME,  in  reference  to  the  name  enrolled  in  the  book  of 
life,  or,  in  a  sense  like  that  which  ovofia  has  in  numberless  cases,  viz. 
him,  i.  e.  this  person.  See  on  v.  4  above. — 'Evmtziov  rtoy  dyyt'Xwv 
avTov,  before  his  angels.  The  idea  is  that  God  in  heaven  is  surrounded 
(and  so  the  Scriptures  represent  him)  with  numberless  hosts  of  angels. 
In  presence  of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  supreme  Majesty,  the  names  of 
believers  will  be  acknowledged.  Comp.  Rev.  1:  4,  and  the  remarks 
there  made;  also  Mark  8:  38.  Luke  9:  26.  12:  8.  1  Tim.  5:  21.  But 
perhaps  (probably  as  it  seems  to  me)  only  the  presence-angels  are  meant 
here,  as  in  Rev.  1:  4,  comp.  Rev.  8:  2. 

(7)  And  to  the  angel  of  the  church  in  Philadelphia  write  :  Thus  saith  he  who 
is  holy  and  true  ;  who  hath  the  key  of  David;  who  openeth  and  no  one  shutteth, 
and  shutteth  and  no  one  openeth. 

'O  uyiog=  t:3'ti^,  a  title  of  the  Godhead,  Hosea  11:  9.  Hab.  3:  3, 
and  ^X'liy';!  ^"np  passim. —  0  dXyj&ivog  is  a  different  way  of  expressing  a 
the  same  idea  which  [iccQTvg  marog  expresses  in  1:  5,  i.  e.  he  who  will  \ 
perform  all  his  promises  or  keep  his  word. 


CHURCH  AT  PHILAPELPHIA  :    ChAP.    III.  8.  91 

Tijv  yXeiv  rov  .laviS.  In  Rev.  ii:  5  the  Messiah  is  called  t)  Qi'ta 
/4nvid,  i.  e.  a  ront-sproftt  or  root-shoot  of  David;  and  in  Kev.  22:  16, 
ij  ni'^a  xa)  to  yf'vo-;  .luvid,  the  root-shoot  and  offspring  of  David,  i.  e. 
the  son  of  David;  the  expression  being  poetical.  In  Luke  1:  32  the 
angel  Gabriel  announces  to  Mary,  that  '  the  Lord  God  will  give  to  the 
child  about  to  be  born,  the  throne  of  David  his  father.'  I  take  the 
sense  to  be  the  same  here ;  although  the  mode  of  expression,  hey  of 
David,  is  evidently  borrowed  from  Is.  22:  22,  where,  in  the  same  words 
which  are  here  employed,  dominion  over  the  house  of  Judah,  like  to  that 
of  David,  is  promised  to  Elinkim  the  son  of  Hilkiah.  The  metaphor  of 
the  key  stands  there  connected  with  the  house  of  David,  which  makes 
the  meaning  obvious.  Access  to,  and  control  over,  the  house  of  David, 
i.  e.  the  regal  house  or  palace,  is  plainly  designated  by  the  hey ;  in  other 
words,  regal  dominion  is  the  meaning.  Here,  the  word  house  is  omitted, 
which  makes  the  meaning  less  obvious.  The  words  which  follow  :  o 
dvoiymv  .  .  .  avolyu  designate,  of  course,  complete  and  entire  control, 
i.  e.  supreme  dominion.  One  who  had  this  power  over  a  house,  would 
have  the  supreme  control  of  it.  So  here  ;  the  Messiah,  who  is  o  ayiog 
•Au)  0  ulr^y^ivo^,  has  power  to  perform  all  his  promises,  for  his  control  is 
supreme  and  entire.  So  in  1:  18,  tjfo)  tag  yXug  zov  \)-avdrov  y.ai  rov 
adov,  i.  e.  I  have  supreme  control  over  the  regions  of  death,  or  the 
world  of  the  dead. — Khiv  (from  y.Xet'g)  makes  an  anomalous  contraction 
(for  xltiSa)  in  the  Accusative  singular ;  so  in  the  plural  nldg  for  xXsi- 
Sag;  see  Buttm,  §  58. 

(8)  I  know  thy  works ;  behold,  T  have  set  before  thee  an  open  door,  which  no 
man  can  shut;  because  thou  hast  some  little  strength,  and  hast  kepi  my  word, 
and  hast  not  denied  niy  name. 

Open  door  has  an  evident  reference  to  the  phraseology  of  the  pre- 
ceding verse,  i.  e.  to  the  keys,  on  which  depend  the  opening  and  the 
shutting.  As  it  plainly  means  the  enjoyment  of  some  privilege,  (for  an 
open  door  must  mean  ready  and  easy  access  to  any  place),  in  its  present 
connection,  it  must  of  course  signify  the  easy  and  abundant  attainment 
of  privileges  and  blessings.  If  the  question  be  asked:  What  are  these 
blessings?  The  answer  seems  to  be  plainly  given  in  the  9th  and  10th 
verses,  viz.,  (1)  Their  Jewish  persecutors  will  be  made  to  humble 
themselves,  and  to  confess  the  Saviour's  protecting  power.  (2)  The 
church  at  Philadelphia  shall  but  lightly  experience  the  trials  which  are 
coming  upon  the  world  around  them.  To  sum  up  all  here  promised  in 
one  sentence :  *  I  will  humble  thy  persecutors,  and  mitigate  for  thee 
trials  to  which  the  churches  in  general  are  ex[)Osed.' 

Perhaps  the  tropical  language  of  an  open  door  might  be  explained 
with  more  facility  by  reversing  the  order  in  which  we  conceive  of  the 


I 


92  CHURCH  AT  PHILADELPHIA  :    ChAP.    III.  8. 

blessings  that  are  to  be  bestowed.  We  have,  in  the  preceding  view^ 
regarded  the  matter  in  the  light  of '  easy  and  free  access  to  positive 
blessings  ;'  but  would  not  the  context  rather  lead  us  to  interpret  open 
door  as  having  respect  to  a  liberation  from  a  state  of  bondage  or  danger  ? 
This  chui'ch  is  to  be  kept  from  the  trials  which  are  to  overtake  x)thers. 
A  ready  way  of  escape  Avill  be  proffered  to  them,  i.  e.  an  o})en  door  is 
set  before  them.  In  substance,  this  amounts  to  the  same  as  the  pre- 
ceding method  of  interpretation ;  but  we  make  a  somewhat  different 
application  of  the  tropical  language. 

Ewald  interprets  it  of  a  promise  to  multiply  converts  to  the  church, 
appealing  to  Acts  14:  27.  1  Cor.  16:  9.  2  Cor.  2:  12.  Col.  4:  3.  No 
doubt,  open  door  might  designate  an  enlarged  power  of  making  con- 
verts ;  but  the  context  here  has  told  us  what  is  meant,  so  that  we  are 
not  at  liberty  to  devise  another  meaning,  however  possible  or  even 
probable.  On  the  other  hand,  Eichhorn  and  Heinrichs  interpret  open 
door  of  easy  access  to  the  heavenly  temple  or  palace,  at  all  times.  In 
itself  this  meaning  is  not  objectionable ;  but  the  context,  as  has  been 
remarked,  points  us  to  a  different  interpretation.  Vitringa  gives  it  a 
little  different  turn  from  Ewald :  '  I  will  give  thee  free  access  to  preach- 
ers and  all  the  means  of  grace,  and  will  increase  thee,  although  thou 
art  now  small  or  few  in  number ;'  (for  so  he  construes  ort  [irAQuv  tieig 
dvva[.uv).  This  is  a  meaning  not  improbable  in  itself;  but  the  context 
forbids  it  here.     Vs.  9,  10,  are  plainly  epexegetical  of  {^VQav  dveqjy^i'viiv. 

As  to  on  ^lY.qav  e^eig  dvvafitv,  the  question  seems  to  be,  whether  it 
applies  to  the  small  numbers  of  the  church,  or  to  the  spiritual  energy 
and  life  which  they  possess.  Most  of  the  leading  expositors  refer  it  to 
the  fewness  of  numbers,  making  dyvajxiv  equivalent  to  number  or  quanti- 
ty. So  the  preceding  interpreters ;  and  so  in  Rob.  Lex.  and  others. 
That  dvvaiug  may  mean  abundance  (comp.  ^^n),  is  plain  from  Rev.  18: 
3  ;  but  in  this  passage  such  a  tropical  meaning  is  not  forced  upon  the 
word  by  the  context.  No  other  example  of  the  same  kind  occurs  in  the 
N.  Testament;  and  this  alone  seems  hardly  adequate  to  justify  the  in- 
terpretation which  we  are  examining.  The  phrase  itself — a  small 
abundance — proffers  something  that  seems  incongruous  and  rather  for- 
bidding. H[ence  I  must  side  with  our  English  version  :  "  Thou  hast  a 
little  strength,"  by  which^  as  I  presume,  the  translators  meant  to  desig- 
nate the  spiritual  condition  of  the  church  at  Philadelphia.  The  objec- 
tion to  this  may  be  comprised  in  the  question  :  How  can  a  little  strength 
be  a  reason  for  bestowing  the  blessings  upon  them,  which  are  promised 
in  the  sequel  ?  Plainly  not  a  good  reason,  I  admit,  in  case  we  are  to 
regard  the  expression  as  a  positive  declaration  amounting  to  this  :  '  Thou 
hast  but  a  little  strength;'  for  this  would  be  matter  of  accusation, 
instead  of  promise.    But  I  do  not  interpret  the  phrase  in  this  way. 


CnURCn  AT  FIIILADELPIIIA  :    CnAP.   III.  9.  93 

I  refjard  it  as  a  /L/ror;/s',  i.  e.  a  softened  mode  of  expression  in  a  kind  of 
negative  form,  which  inipUes  much  more  than  the  words  strictly  taken 
would  seem  to  import.  This  is  a  favourite  figure  or  mode  of  expression 
in  these  seven  epistles;  comp.  2:  2,  3,  13,  24.  3:  5,  12,  16,  and  the  last 
clause  of  the  verse  before  us.  What  has  he  said  to  the  church  at  Sar- 
dis  ?  AexQOi;  il,  i.  e.  thou  ai't  destitute  of  due  spiritual  life  or  activity. 
As  the  opposite  of  this,  what  says  he  in  the  present  case?  DIi/.Qav  tyjig 
di'iaiiir,  i.  e.  thou  hast  some  energy.  But  why  does  he  not  speak  in 
the  positive  t'ovm,  and  say  ^tyu)jiV?  Because  the  church  were  proba- 
bly not  entitled  to  commendation  so  high.  They  were  not  in  the  high- 
est state  of  action  ;  but  they  had  steadfastly  adhered  to  their  Christian 
profession,  and  they  had  never  become  recusants,  notwithstanding  all 
their  trials.     Hence  the  promises  which  are  made  to  them  in  the  sequel. 

That  the  speaker  means  to  say  something  in  the  way  of  commenda- 
tion, in  the  clause  before  us,  I  cannot  well  doubt ;  for  this  the  tenor  of 
the  discourse,  and  the  two  succeeding  clauses  that  are  annexed  to  [.ax- 
Quv  f/ffs'  dvyuftiv,  indicate.  If  we  suppose  a  P./ro'r//i,'  in  the  case  before 
us,  then  we  have  this  sentiment :  '  Thou  hast  some  portion  of  Christian 
vigour,  hast  kept  my  word,'  etc.  Much  less  congruous  does  the  other 
mode  of  interpretation  appear  to  me  ;  although  I  deny  not  its  possibility. 

'ETi;ni,ang  in  the  sense  of  1;"^,  obeyed,  watdifuUy  observed. — yloyov 
means  whatever  he  has  declared,  i.  e.  all  his  prescriptions  or  commands. 
— Ovu  riQv/j<ja),  thou  hast  not  denied.  When  the  heathen  or  Jews 
brought  Christians  before  the  civil  magistrates,  and  accused  them  of 
practising  a  religio  non  licita,  they  were  required  to  renounce  and  de- 
nounce the  name  of  Christ.  The  church  of  Philadelphia  had  refused 
to  do  this.  They  had  met  persecution  and  danger  with  steadfastness 
and  with  constancy. — "Ovo^a  may  be  taken  here  as  above,  i.  e.  to  ovo[ia 
Hov  may  be  regarded  as  =  nL  A  good  reason,  however,  for  a  some- 
what different  explanation  is,  that  ovo^a  is  employed  hei'e  because 
Christians  were  called  upon,  in  persecution,  to  renounce  their  name  as 
Christians,  as  well  as  their  faith  in  Christ.  This  name  the  church  at 
Philadelphia  had  not  renounced. 

(9)  Behold,  I  will  cause  those  who  are  of  the  synagogue  of  Satan,  who  say  tiiat 
they  are  Jews  (and  yet  are  not),  but  speak  falsely — behold  I  will  make  them  come 
and  do  homage  before  thy  feet,  and  know  that  1  have  loved  thee. 

J  t  da  fit  =  '^r^ ,  faciam,  ponam,  I  will  cause,  or  I  will  so  arrange  this 
matter.  After  dtdrnfu  we  must  mentally  supply  avzov^,  which  makes 
its  appearance  below  after  nou'iaa. — '£x  expresses  (with  avrois"  implied) 
Sk  partitive  sense,  or  rather  it  indicates  the  source  whence' avroi;*;  flows, 
viz.,  the  synagogue  of  Satan.  Such  a  meaning  of  f  x  is  common  in  the 
New  Testament ;  see  Rob.  Lex.  i/,  h.  Comp.  also  Ges.  Ileb.  Lex.  'jp , 


ifrai 


94  CHURCH  AT  PHILADELPHIA :    Chap.   III.  10. 

No.  1. — Hvvaymy^g  x.  r.  X.,  see  on  2:  9,  where  the  same  expression 
occurs.  The  speaker  means  to  say,  that  however  much  they  may  boast 
of  their  zeal  or  their  name,  they  are  not  Jews  in  the  true  and  noble 
sense  of  that  word.  Corap.  John  8:  33,  39,  40.  Tojv  ItyovTcav,  Geni- 
tive plural,  concord  ad  sensum  with  the  noun  of  multitude  Gvvaybjyijg. 

'Idov  TTOi/jooi  avTovg  resumes  the  sentence  which  had  been  suspended 
by  intermediate  matter,  and  exchanges  the  didoifit,  of  the  first  clause  for 
the  more  explicit  verb  noii^aco. — fva  ^^mai  x.  r.  X.,  equivalent  to  the 
Infinitive  modes  7Jy.£tv  and  nQoay.vvHV,  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  162.3.  Note 
2.  nQoay.vrt'oo  has  the  generic  sense  of  falling  prostrate  or  doing  hom- 
age ;  and  this  homage  may  be  either  to  God  or  man.  In  the  former 
case,  it  is  spiritual  worship,  in  the  latter,  it  is  civil  homage.  The  lexi- 
cons under  iin'i  and  7tQoaxvvt'(o  wiU  supply  examples  of  both.  The 
idea  of  worship  here,  in  the  spiritual  sense,  is  out  of  question.  Pros- 
tration of  enemies  as  merely  humbled  and  subdued,  in  this  case,  is  all 
that  can  be  meant.  Ewald  supposes  that  the  conversion  of  these  ene- 
mies is  implied.  Possibly  it  is  ;  but  this  meaning  is  not  a  necessary 
one.  Enough  for  the  purposes  of  the  speaker,  that  the  enemies  of  the 
church  at  Philadelphia  are  to  be  humbled  and  abased  before  his  faith- 
ful servants.  It  might  be  hoped,  indeed,  that  such  a  frame  of  mind 
would  lead  them  on  still  further  to  recognize  the  power  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Comp.  Is.  60:  14.  49:  23. 

Kai  yvMOiv  .  .  .  (j«  =  yvavai  Inf.,  as  above  in  the  case  of  7iQ0Cy.vvaiv. 
The  meaning  is,  that  the  elevation  of  the  Christian  cause  and  the 
humiliation  of  its  enemies  shall  be  such,  that  those  enemies  will  be  con- 
strained to  acknowledge  the  special  power,  protection,  and  kind  regard 
of  the  great  Head  of  the  church  toward  Christians. 

(10)  Because  thou  hast  kept  the  word  of  my  patience,  I  also  will  keep  thee 
from  the  hour  of  temptation,  which  is  coming  on  all  the  world,  to  try  those  who 
dwell  on  the  earth. 

Tov  }.6yov  Tt;g  imonovrig  juov,  i.  e.  my  command  to  exercise  patience 
under  trials ;  vno^wvijg  [iov  appears  to  mean,  the  patience  tvhich  I  re- 
quire. Eichhorn  and  Heinrichs  construe  these  words  as  the  Gen.  of 
similitude,  i.  e.  patience  such  as  I  have  exhibited ;  but  the  sense  above 
given  better  accords  with  ixriQriadg  fiov  tov  Xoyov  in  v.  8. 

Kcd  CE  TTjQr^Goc),  I wHl  keep  in  another  sense,  i.  e.  preserve  ;  so  that 
there  is  here  an  antanaclasis  with  the  preceding  izi^Qtjffag. — 'SiQug  is  to 
be  taken  in  the  generic  sense,  viz.  season,  time,  period. — neigaafiov 
here  in  the  sense  of  temptation,  i.  e.  temptation  (in  this  case)  to  recant 
the  Christian  profession,  because  of  the  sufferings  of  which  it  was  the 
occasion  in  times  of  persecution. 

MsXlomtiS  e'eZ^fTL^at,  is  about  to  come,  or  which  is  speedily  coming ; 


CHURCH  AT  PHILADELPHIA  :    ChAP.   III.  11,  12.  95 

for  so  fttlXco  usually  signifies,  being  employed  to  designate  the  proxi- 
mate future. — OUovfit'vijv  ohjg,  the  tchole  world;  corap.  ;r«(j«v  t»}j' ot- 
xovitt'yt,v  in  Luke  2:  1,  where  possibly  it  means  Judea,  but  probably  the 
Avhole  Konian  empire.  At  any  rate,  the  phrase  is  often  used  indefinitely 
for  a  wide  extent  of  country  ;  and  so  it  may  designate  the  whole  Roman 
empire.  Here  the  most  probable  meaning  is  the  same,  or  at  least  the 
whole  region  of  the  Roman  Asia  Minor,  or  the  whole  country  around 
the  region  of  Philadi'lphia.  So  the  i'")xn-b3  or  ban  of  the  Hebrews. — 
IInQuoui,  Infinitive,  defines,  or  expresses  the  purpose  or  end  to  be  ac- 
complished. N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  162.  4. — Kuzoi-AOvvTag  tm  rijs  yij<i, 
i.  e.  the  temptation  or  trial  coming  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  land ;  this 
phrase  being  added  for  the  sake  of  more  ample  specification,  rijg  is 
most  evidently  here  synonymous  with  oi/.ovuHii^  oh,';,  and  y.aroixovvTag 
ini  T/]b  '/!,<;  is  a  common  llebi'aistic  idiom  for  designating  the  inhabitants 
of  a  country. 

Meaning :  '  I  will  exempt  you  from  the  severe  trials  of  persecution 
which  will  be  experienced  by  all  the  countries  around  you,  or  I  will 
mitigate  these  trials.'  This  shows,  that  an  active  and  wide-spread  per- 
secution was  then  either  going  on  or  about  to  go  on,  and  was  still  to  be 
continued,  when  this  book  was  written.  Of  course  this  brings  up  the  ^ 
inquiry,  whether  the  Apocalypse  must  not  have  been  written  during 
Nero's  life  ;  for  when  he  died  the  persecution  ceased  immediately,  as  all 
agree. 

(11)  I  am  coming  quickly ;  hold  fast  what  thou  hast,  that  no  one  may  take 
away  thy  crown. 

Kqutsi  0  ix^ig,  keep  steadfast  in  thy  firm  and  hitherto  unwavering 
faith.  Do  this  iva  fir^deig  ^-"'f^ff  '^ov  azt'cfuvov  aov,  in  order  that,  or  so 
that,  none  shall  deprive  you  of  your  proffered  reward.  Christians  were 
encouraged  with  the  promise  of  their  being  made  kings  and  priests  to 
God.  In  either  case  a  mitre  or  crown,  (see  the  splendid  image  in  2:  17), 
would  belong  to  them. — Mri8t}g  hi^rj  expresses  the  same  sense  as  the 
passive  voice  may  not  be  taken  away,  =  jW^  dvaiQrj&rj,  for  firfdsig  is  the 
indef.  Nom. — ^u^rj,  take  away;  so  Matt.  5:  40.  Rev.  6:4.  So  the 
Hebrew  nph ;  see  both  words  in  the  lexicons.  The  idea  is,  that  persC' 
verance  is  essential  to  the  final  reward  of  Christians. 

(12)  He  who  overcometh— I  will  make  him  a  pillar  in  the  temple  of  my  God, 
and  he  shall  no  more  go  out;  and  I  will  write  upon  him  the  name  of  my  God, 
and  the  name  of  the  city  of  my  God,  of  the  new  Jerusalem  which  cometh  down 
out  of  heaven  from  my  God,  and  my  new  name. 

noif,a(o  avTov  azvXov  Ewald  compares  with  Is.  22:  23  for  illustra- 
tion, this  being  the  sequel  of  the  passage  referred  to  in  v.  7  above  ;  see 
commentary  on  that  verse.     There  the  prophet  Isaiah  speaks  of  Elia- 


96  CHTTRCH  AT  PHILADELPHIA  :    ChAP.   III.  12. 

kim,  as  about  to  become  "  a  nail  in  a  sure  place,  and  also  a  glorious 
throne ;"  see  a  kindred  expression  in  Ezra  9:  8,  9.  To  me  it  seems 
more  natural  and  easy  lo  adopt  the  familiar  view  of  Paul  and  Peter 
(1  Cor.  3:  16,  17.  6:  19.  2  Cor.  6:  16.  1  Pet.  2:  5),  which  represents 
Christians  as  parts  of  a  great  temple  or  spiritual  building,  of  which  Christ 
is  the  chief  corner  stone.  If  the  metaphor  is  carried  through  with  con- 
sistency, such  a  temple  must  of  course  be  supposed  to  have  arvXoi,  pil- 
lars. These  are  a  conspicuous,  ornamental,  and  highly  useful  part  of 
the  temple.  What  pillars  are  then  to  a  temple  literally  considered,  the 
like  will  such  Christians  as  those  in  Philadelphia  be,  in  the  spiritual 
temple  built  by  the  Saviour.  The  principal  idea  is  plain,  and  very 
sti'iking.  The  promise  is  special,  on  the  ground  that  the  virtues  in  ques- 
tion are  special.  Comp.  Gal.  2:  9,  where  azvloi  has  a  kindred  sense. 
That  the  idea  of  steadfastness  lies  at  the  basis  of  all,  is  plain  from  the 
context  and  from  the  nature  of  the  case. 

Kui  iico  .  .  .  in  is  to  be  referred,  not  to  the  jnllar,  (for  this  image  is 
completed  with  the  preceding  clause),  but  to  the  man,  avzov,  i.  e.  to  him 
who  overcometh.  Ife  shall  never  more  go  out,  i.  e.  never  depart  from, 
or  be  removed  from,  the  temple  in  which  he  is  stationed.  He  shall  there 
occupy  a  steadfast  and  a  constant  place.  See  the  like  sentiment  in 
John  6:  37.  10:  28,  29.   1  John  2:  19. 

Kou  yQuxpco  fV  uvTov,  i.  e.  upon  the  man,  the  conqueror.  Inscrip- 
tions, indeed,  were  often  made  upon  pillars  ;  but  ov  fiij  l^eX&y  cannot 
well  be  predicated  of  a  pillar.  Inscriptions  were  also  made  upon  meii, 
and  upon  parts  of  their  costume ;  see  Rev.  7:  3.  22:  4.  14:  1,  where  the 
servants  of  God  have  niir^^  marked  on  their  foreheads  or  ratlwr  frontlets. 
So  the  followers  of  the  beast  and  false  prophet.  Rev.  13:  16.  14: 11.  19: 
20.  20:  4.  I  take  the  imagery  here  to  be  of  the  same  nature  as  that  in 
Rev.  2:  17,  where  the  7ieio  name  inscribed  on  a  splendid  diamond  in 
front  of  the  mitre  or  crown  is  mentioned.  In  2:  17  only  the  7ieiv  name, 
i.  e.  the  name  of  the  Saviour  or  Logos,  is  mentioned  ;  for  there  the  com- 
parison is  made  simply  with  the  mitre  of  the  Jewish  high  priests  which 
had  but  one  name  inscribed  upon  it.  Here  the  speaker  enlarges  the 
idea,  and  comprehends  the  name  of  Jehovah,  of  the  new  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  21:  2),  and  also  the  new  name,  viz.  that  of  the  Redeemer.  The 
name  of  God  inscribed  on  one's  forehead,  designates  the  generic  idea  of 
one  devoted  to  objects  and  purposes  spiritual  and  heavenly ;  the  name 
of  the  Neio  Jerusalem,  marks  the  peculiar  city  to  which  the  conqueror 
belongs ;  the  new  name  is  that  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Christians  as 
such,  to  a  disciple  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  With  such  a  distinction 
impressed  on  him,  or  at  least  borne  upon  the  frontlet  of  his  mitre,  the 
conqueror  would  be  recognized  and  acknowledged  by  all  as  entitled  to 
his  place  in  the  New  Jerusalem. 


ciiURcn  AT  LAOPiCEA  :  Chap.  III.  14.  iff 

A'«/)7;s,*  '/f.nov(in).i',u ;  see  the  sploiulid  description  in  Rov.  21:  10  8eq. 
Tiip  idea  of  a  heavenly  city  and  temple,  or  nither  of  a  city  the  whole'  of 
Avhioh  is  itself  like  a  temple  (Rev.  21:  22).  is  a  familiar  one  in  the  New 
Testament:  see  Rev.  xxi.  Rev.  22:  14.  Ileh.  11:  10,  IG.  12:  22.  13: 
14.  Phil,  o:  20,  wluM'c  noltm'jia  means  citizenship.  Gal.  4:  26  al. —  ft 
^iUTa^alriwaa  •/..  r.  )..,  so  in  Rev.  21:  2,  where  it  is  considered  as  a 
splendid  appendapre  of  the  iieto  earth  which  is  to  be  created,  at  the  final 
consummation  of  all  thinprs.  To  indicate  its  heavenly  or  spiritual  na- 
ture, it  is  represented  as  descending  from  God  out  of  liea\en.  As  a 
citizen  of  this  glorious  and  eternal  city,  the  conqueror  in  question  is  to 
wear  its  insignia  or  badges. — To  oroud  finv  to  xauov,  see  on  2:  17, 
The  Saviour's  name,  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt,  is  designated  by  this. 
— As  to  the  gramtnatioal  construction  of  /;  nuTa^ui'invna  (Nom.  instead 
of  the  normal  Gen.)  see,  in  respect  to  this  idiom  which  is  somewhat 
common,  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  172.  1,  also  Vol.  I.  p.  234  seq. 

(II)  And  to  the  anorcl  of  th>  clmrcli  in  Liodicoa  write  :  Thus  saitli  the  Ampn, 
the  faithful  and  true  witness,  the  beginning  [head,  prince]  of  the  creation  of  God. 

'O  ^^fu'jv  signifies  the  same  as  that  which  is  immediately  after  subjoin- 
ed, viz.  TTiarog  y.ui  (D.i^OiiO'^;  see  on  ftaQtV'^  niGii)^  in  1:  5.  The  ob- 
ject of  employing  these  designations  here  seems  to  be,  to  remind  the 
church  addressed  that  the  comminations  of  its  Lord  and  IMaster  are  to 
be  believed,  as  well  as  his  promises.  See,  on  similar  repetitions  in  He- 
brew and  Greek,  Vol.  I.  p.  230. 

H  un/Jj  T//?  y.Ti'aeco<:  has  been,  as  might  be  expected,  a  subject  of  con- 
test among  critics,  on  account  of  its  appHcation  to  Christ.  (1)  It  has 
been  compared  with  6  7iQ(or6roy.og  tcov  vsnomv  in  1:  5,  and  so  made  to 
mean  the  first  of  the  neic  spiritual  creation,  i.  e.  the  first  in  order  of  those 
raised  from  the  dead.  But  if  this  was  the  writer's  meaning,  would  he 
not — must  he  not — have  said:  uq/Jj  Tm^f^r^Qptyav  in  rav  rs/.nojv? 
And  even  this  would  have  been  a  unique  expression.  There  is  some 
resemblance  however  to  such  a  phraseology,  in  dnanyrj  rwv  xe/,oiiaj^E- 
tcor  in  1  Cor.  15:  20.  Yet  this  resemblance  is  more  ap[)arent  than  reaL 
"  The  first-fruits  of  those  who  have  fallen  asleep  "  means,  he  who  is 
first  in  order  raised  from  the  dead ;  while  UQpj  jav  fyeysQfin'cov  iy.  ruv 
vexQbiv  would  mean,  the  Lord  or  King  of  the  dead.  This  is  an  idea 
which  is  not  expressed  in  the  Scriptures,  except  in  such  cases  as  Rom. 
14:  9,  where  universality  of  dominion  is  designated  by  saying,  "that  he 
might  exercise  dominion  over  the  dead  and  the  living."  The  solution 
before  us.  then,  is  not  satisfactory. 

(2)  The  author  of  creation  ;  see  Staeudlin's  Jloral  IntfiiAfction  to 
the  New  Testament,  p.  201.     But  although  the  sentfinent  thus  conveyed 

VOL.  IL  13 


98  CHURCH  AT  LAODICEA  :  ChAP.  III.  14. 

is   biblical  (John   1:3.    Heb.  1:  2.    Col.  1:  16),  yet  it  cannot   well   be 
shown  that  the  word  dfiyJi  means  creator  or  author  of  all  things. 

(3)  llie  first  created  being.  So  Ewaltl,  and  some  others.  Ewald  re- 
fers to  an  alleged  Jewish  opinion,  in  the  apostolic  age,  that  angels  were 
created  before  the  world ;  and  therefore  the  Messiah,  who  was  superior 
to  them,  must  have  been  created  before  angels.  He  thinks  that  Job 
38:  7,  "  When  the  morning  stars  sang  together,  etc.,"  was  the  source  of 
the  alleged  Jewish  opinion  ;  and  such  an  opinion  is  in  fact  found  in 
Genesis  Parva,  an  apocryphal  Hebrew  book  of  late  origin  mentioned 
by  Jerome,  and  quoted  by  Zonaras,  Lib.  I.  Annal.  p.  4.  The  passa- 
ges respecting  this  may  be  found  in  Fab.  Cod.  Apoc.  V.  Test.  I.  p.  851. 
Ewald  appeals  also  to  the  Rabbinical  dicta  cited  in  Eisenmenger's  Ent- 
deckt.  Judenthum,  II.  p.  370  seq. ;  but  here,  while  Jalkoth  Hadash  is 
cited  for  such  an  opinion,  one  may  find  also  other  opinions,  viz.  that  the 
angels  were  created  on  the  second  day,  and  on  the  fifth  day,  and  every 
day,  etc. ;  all  of  which  is  accompanied  with  some  gross  and  repulsive 
conceits.  Ewald  also  appeals  to  Suicer's  Thesaurus,  I.  p.  32  seq. ; 
which,  however,  merely  gives  the  opinions  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
during  and  after  the  fourth  century.  Of  the  earlier  fathers  only  Ori- 
gen  is  cited ;  and  he  held  that  angels,  and  indeed  all  pure  intelligent 
substances,  were  created  nQo  rwv  alcovcov,  i.  e.  from  eternity.  So  we 
are  destitute  of  the  proof  requisite  to  establish  such  a  Jewish  opinion  as 
Ewald  appeals  to,  at  the  early  period  in  question.  Even  if  the  Rab- 
bins cited  in  Eisenmenger  had  testified  in  such  a  way  as  Ewald  repre- 
sents, it  would  be  little  or  nothing  to  the  purpose.  Who  does  not  know, 
that  most  of  the  curious  and  speculative  conceits  which  they  exhibit, 
were  of  Cabbalistic  origin,  and  later  than  the  first  century  ?  * 

■*  Tliat  Christ  was  expected  by  the  Jews  to  be  superior  to  the  angels,  is  clear 
enough  from  the  manner  of  the  appeal  in  Heb.  i.,  where  the  writer  seems  to  re- 
gard this  opinion  as  undeniable,  and  speaks  merely  in  the  way  of  confirming  it, 
in  order  that  lie  may  urge  it  upon  his  readers  with  the  more  force.  See  also  Rev. 
19:  10.  1  Pet.  1:  12.  3:  22.  Phil.  2:  10.  Col.  1:  15— 17.  2:  10.  But  that  Christ 
was  created  before  the  foundation  of  the  world,  (Ewald  asserts  that  the  Jews  of 
the  Saviour's  time  held  such  an  opinion,  and  that  the  Saviour  himself  at  least 
recognized  it),  is  not  proved  at  all  by  any  of  the  texts  to  which  tiiis  critic  appeals. 
1  Pet.  1:  20  Eph.  1:4.  3:  9 — II,  surely  cannot  be  relied  on,  as  he  supposes,  for 
such  a  purpose  ;  for  they  are  quite  foreign  to  it.  And  as  to  Col.  1:  1.5,  ttqujto- 
Toxo?  Ttj?  y.Ti'ofoj?,  it  must  be  merely  a  constructive  exegesis,  which  can  make  out 
from  this  the  sentiment  in  question.  Does  not  TTQiororoito?,  in  ils  figurative  sense, 
(the  literal  sense  is  out  of  question  here),  apply  io  jirce7nincnce  of  ran/e,  rathev 
than  mere  precedence  of  age  or  time  .'  And  is  not  this  the  design  of  Patil  here  ? 
Would  a  writer  like  him  represent  the  Messiah  as  the  Creator  of  all  Ihmgs, 
(Eph.  3:  9.  1  Cor.  8:  6.  Col.  1:  16,  17),  and  then  say  that  he  was  himself  created, 
i.  e.  was  a  mere  creature?  So  long  as  the  passage  in  Col.  1:  15  is  fairly  suscep- 
tible of  another  sense  than  that  which  Ewald  gives  it,  so  long,  with  such  views 


CHURCH  AT  i.aodicea:  Ciiap.  III.  14.  99 

(4)  Tfie  bff/iiini)i(/  (ill  till'  iU'tivc  sense)  of  the  creation,  i.  c.  llic  Cre- 
ator of  all  tilings;  scarcely  (littering  from  No.  2  above.  So  V'ilringa 
and  many  others.  This  would  be  a  nietonymical  use  of  the  word,  put- 
ting the  effect  for  the  cause,  i.  e.  the  beginning  of  the  creation  for  hiin 
who  caused  it  to  begin.  I  will  not  say  that  this  is  an  impossible  sense 
of  the  phraseology;  but  surely  we  should  adopt  such  an  exeg''sis  only 
by  virtue  of  some  plain  necessity ;  for  in  such  a  case  only  could  we 
adopt  it  with  any  good  degree  of  satisfaction.  But  in  the  present  case, 
another  and  more  obvious  meaning  is  [lossible,  and  one  more  conformed 
to  the  USKS  loquendi  of  the  New  Testament.     For, 

(o)  -■l(>X'i  ^'^  often  used  for  preeminence,  princedom,  and  also  (very 
naturally)  for  rulers,  princes;  Luke  20:  20.  Luke  12:  11.  Tit.  3:  1. 
Eph.  1:  21.  3:  10.  6:  12.  Col.  2:  10,  15.  1  Cor.  15:  24.  Rom.  8:  38. 
Col.  1:  16.  See  also  Josephus  and  Xen.,  for  like  usage,  in  Kol).  Lex. 
Why  then,  when  we  have  the  aQ-j^cup  rav  ^uaiXiar  before  us  of  1:  5 

before  nie,  should  I  be  tiisposed  to  give  it  a  sense   difiiTinir  from   liis  iiiclliod  of 
construction. 

It  is  true,  that  some  of  the  Rabbins,  taking  Mic.  5:  2  as  tlie  basis,  "  His  goings 
forth  are  from  everlasting,"  have  said  that  the  Messiah  was  created  before  the 
world  ;  see  Eisenineng.  I.  p.  316.  But  then  the  same  Rabbits  make  the  Law,  the 
Temple,  and  Paradise,  etc.,  eternal  in  the  same  sense.  All  this  moreover,  i.  e. 
this  in  such  a  shape,  is  of  the  later  speculation.  That  Christ  would  have  a  nature 
wliich  existed  before  the  world  was,  is  plain  enough  from  the  te.xts  above  cited, 
which  show  that  he  was  the  Creator  of  the  worlds;  but  that  this  nature  was  it- 
self a  created  one, — titiit  is  quite  another  question,  see  John  I:  3.  Rom.  9:  5. 
Rev.  1:  17.  2:  8.  See  also  Ascens.  Is.  9:  5,  "  He  who  turned  thee  back  again  is 
thy  Lord  Gon,  the  Lord  Christ,  who  will  be  called  in  the  world,  Jvsus."  So 
too  in  Enoch  46:  3 — 5,  "  Before  the  sun  and  the  signs  were  created,  before  the 
stars  of  heaven  were  formed,  his  vame  iras  inrohcd  in  the  presence  of  the  Lord 
of  spirits.  .  .  .  The  Elect  and  the  Concealed  One  existed  in  his  [God's]  presence, 
before  the  world  was  created,  and  forever.'''  Comp.  Enoch  61:  10,"  Kings,  princes, 
and  all  who  possess  the  earth,  shall  glorify  him  [the  Messiah]  who  has  dominion 
over  all  things,  him  who  was  concealed  ;  for  from  the  beginning  the  Son  of  Man 
existed  in  secret,  whom  the  Most  High  preserved  in  the  presence  of  his  power 
and  revealed  to  the  elect."  (v.  13.)  "  All  shall  pray  to  him,  and  petition  him  for 
mercy."  Such  passages  make  it  clear,  indeed,  what  the  Jews  thought  of  the 
anlemnndane  existence  of  Christ;  but  not  a  word  in  all  this  of  his  being  created, 
or  being  created  before  the  angels. 

Why  should  we  then,  or  how  can  we  with  propriety,  adopt  the  opinion  of 
Ewald,  liiat  a^f-/.^  t^?  xriatoj?  means  the  first  created  Ininir?  If  this  meaning  had 
been  intended,  would  not  the  writer  have  said  :  TTQiZro?  rrdprojv  xrtofirlrojr,  or 
■:r(j(~>ros  Toiy  xTiod'tVTi'jv  ?  And  farther  ;  as  6  /un(jTvg  u  TTiarog  here  is  plainly  taken 
from  Rev.  1:5,  and  there,  in  connection  with  this  piirase,  stands  6  oQywv  tiov 
/?aot/Ay»' T^ff  y^ff,  is  it  not  evident  tiiat  the  writer  had  this  in  his  mind  here,  and 
that  he  has  repeated  the  same  sentiment  merely  with  some  small  modification, 
i.  e.  he  has  used  the  alistract  u(jY.^  instead  of  the  concrete  aftyoir,  and  has  made 
the  extent  of  the  dominion  (now  designated  by  rTjq  xrtatcis  rov  d'tov)  wider  than 
before  (in  1:  5),  when  he  merely  said  :  roiv  ^aciiUwv  t//?  yTjs? 


100  CHURCH  AT  LAODICEA  :    ChAP.   111.15 — 17. 

where  such  a  sense  is  certain,  should  we  hesitate  to  give  the  like  sense 
here,  viz.,  Head  or  Lord  of  the  creation  of  God  ?  Not,  as  Wetstein, 
^'ichhorn,  and  olhers,  Head  of  the  church  ;  for  then  it  would  be:  Trjg 
y.airijg  y.ria£fx)g  tov  -O^tov,  Gal.  6:  15.  2  Cor.  5:  17.  But  here  we  may 
give  the  phrase  a  more  enlarged  sense,  like  that  in  Phil.  2:  9 — 11,  Head  ^ 
of  the  whole  creation.  This  is  surely  firmer  ground  than  that  of  Vi-  ^ 
tringa. 

(15)  I  know  thy  works,  that  thou  art  neither  cold  nor  hot.  1  would  that  thou 
wert  eillier  cold  or  hot ! 

Cold  would  imply  a  state  absolutely  unchristian.  Hot  here  means  a 
fervid  and  zealous  state,  such  as  the  times  and  circumstances  then  imperi- 
ously demanded  of  Christians.  "OqieXov  =  utinam,  in  reality  Aor.  II  of 
ocpsiXco,  used  in  epic  poetry  and  the  later  Greek  as  a  particle,  instead  of 
the  regular  form  of  the  verb,  which  would  be  cocfuXov.  It  is  followed  by 
the  Indie,  or  Opt.  Griesbach  reads  tjg  here,  Subj. ;  but  the  Subj.  is  not 
appropriate  to  this  particle,  and  therefore  7]g  is  the  better  reading. 

(16)  So  then,  because  thou  art  luke-warm,  and  neither  cold  nor  hot,  I  will  vo- 
mit thee  out  of  my  mouth. 

XXiciQog  here  designates  tepid,  i.  e.  like  tepid  water,  which  is  odious 
to  the  palate  and  provokes  vomiting.  The  imagery  is  intensely  strong, 
and  denotes  high  disgust  at  the  state  of  indifference  in  which  the  Laodi- 
cean church  were.  This  balancing  between  Christ  and  the  world,  when 
dangers  press  and  difficulties  are  frequent  and  formidable,  is  not  allow- 
ed to  the  soldiers  of  the  cross.  When  they  enlist  under  the  banner 
of 'their  great  Captain,  they  enlist  for  service,  not  for  the  sake  of  fur- 
loughs. 

One  is  tempted  also  to  make  another  application  of  the  sentiment  here, 
which  however  probably  was  not  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  This  is,  that 
when  we  hear  some  persons  protesting  against  the  use  of  hot  or  cold  di'inks, 
as  ruinous  to  health,  and  insisting  on  the  tepid,  we  may  reply :  The 
Apocalyptist  has  appealed  to  our  very  nature,  as  revolting  at  the  xXidQog 
which  you  recommend.  Should  we  have  been  created  with  such  a  taste, 
if  it  were  in  itself  destructive  ?  Excess  in  di'inks  hot  or  cold,  as  excess 
everywhere  else  and  in  all  things,  is  no  doubt  injurious  ;  but  it  would 
be  difficult  to  show  that  a  moderate  use  of  them  is  so. 

(17)  Because  thou  sayest :  I  am  rich,  and  have  become  wealthy  and  have  need 
of  nothing,  and  dost  not  know  that  thou  art  wretched  and  miserable,  and  poor, 
and  blind,  and  naked  ; 

yh'ysig  may  be  taken  in  the  same  sense  in  which  q)t][ii  and  ^rx  are 
often  used,  viz.,  for  internal  speaking,  i.  e.  thinking,  imagining,  supposing, 
etc.     It  matters  but  little,  whether  we  suppose  here  the  Laodicean  church 


CHt'RCn  AT  LAODICEA  :    Chai'.   III.  17.  101 

to  liave  merely  thonglit  in  their  liearts  that  which  the  sequel  of  the  text 
exhibits,  or  expressed  themselves  outwardly  to  the  same  effect.  The 
latter  ease  would  merely  indicate  either  a  little  more  frankness,  or  a  lit- 
tle more  impudence,  as  the  case  mifjht  he. 

IlXovaiOf'  in  respect  to  wealth,  property,  or  in  respect  to  spiritual  gifts 
and  graces  ?  The  former,  I  can  scarcely  doubt.  There  are  and  have 
been,  indeed,  many  spiritual  boasters  in  the  world  ;  but  then  they  are 
for  the  most  part  men  of  an  enthusiastic  turn  of  mind,  and  commonly 
have  much  fervour,  such  as  it  is;  whereas  the  Laodicean  church  are 
plainly  characterized  as  wordling-Christians,  grown  luke-warm  as  to  di- 
vine things  by  the  eager  pursuit  of  riches.  The  world  is  filled  with  ex- 
amples of  the  same  nature,  at  the  present  hour. — ThnlovT^'Mt  only  ren- 
ders the  atfirmation  more  intense  ;  and  the  following  clause  adds  still 
more  to  this  intensity,  viz.,  and  I  have  need  of  nothing.  In  other  words, 
I  have  accumulated  riches  to  such  a  degree,  that  all  my  wants  and  de- 
sires can  be  gratified. 

'0  T(().ui^6no.;  y.ai  6  ehfirn^'  with  the  ar|,icle  ;  but  nzw/og  etc.  without 
it.  The  anicle  before  iXatirn^',  however,  is  omitted  in  some  Qodic^, 
probably  becajjselhe  common  principle  in  this  case,  would  seem  tore- 
quire  the  omission  ;  for  continuous  nouns  or  adjectives,  connected  and 
coordinate,  usually  omit  the  article  after  the  first  noun  or  adjective ;  N. 
Test.  Graram.  §  89.  9.  But  I  prefer  the  reading  6  fXativn^,  because  I 
regard  t]ie  writer  as  intending  to  lay  some  special  emphasis  or  stress  on 
tuXuiTKonog  and  f'Afffros," ;  which  ai'e  no  doubt  to  be  taken  in  a  spiritual 
sense.  It  must  be,  that  if  the  Laodiceans  were  in  reality  Christians, 
(and  we  are  not  constrained  to  deny  this),  still  they  were  in  such  a  state 
of  spiritual  declension,  that  they  must  after  all  have  been  truly  wretched, 
not  being  able  fully  to  enjoy  either  their  wealth  or  their  religion.  Hence 
6  ralalnwQog  and  6  iXesti'og.  For  the  rest;  nua-fog  x.  r.  X.,\)Qvc\%  with- 
out the  article,  seem  to  admit  of  a  less  intensive  sense,  and  to  denote 
what  is  still  compatible  with  having  some  principle  of  piety,  although  it 
was  then  destitute  of  any  present  active  and  efficient  development.  It 
may  be,  that  this  view  of  the  case  requires  too  nice  distinctions  ;  yet 
one  can  hardly  imagine  that  all  the  church  at  Laodicea  were  hypocrites, 
see  V.  19,  which  seems  to  forbid  such  a  supposition.  If  they  were  not, 
then  the  three  latter  adjectives  should  be  Uiken  in  a  comparative  or  mo- 
dified sense.     The  omission  of  the  article  comports  well  with  this. 

/Iroi/Oi,',  spiritually  jooor,  in  the  way  of  antithesis  to  the  preceding 
nhn'csui'i  ;  see  the  like  antithesis  in  2:  9.  Sentiment :  '  Whatever 
worldly  possessions  thou  mayest  have,  or  however  abundant  they  are, 
thou  art  poor  in  respect  to  spiritual  gifts  and  graces.' — TvcpXog,  blind  in 
a  spiritual  respect,  i.  e.  not  discerning  thy  duty,  nor  the  true  nature  and 
excelleuce  of  spiritual  acquisitions. — rvfivog,  naked,  i.  e.  destitute  of 


102  CHURCH  AT  LAODICEA  :    ChAP.   III.  18 — 20. 

the  goodly  vesture  of  a  truly  Christian  spirit,  and  therefore  exposed  by 
thy  condition  to  the  contemptuous  gaze  of  the  world,  to  whom  thy  incon- 
sistent conduct  must  be  manifest. 

(18)  I  counsel  tliee  to  procure  of  me  gold  tried  by  fire,  that  thou  mayest  be  rich  ; 
and  white  garments,  that  thou  mayest  put  them  on  and  the  shame  of  thy  naked- 
ness may  not  appear  ;  and  eye-salve  to  anoint  thine  eyes,  that  thou  mayest  see. 

y^yoQUGai  to  procure  or  ohtain  ;  for  the  word  does  not  always  have 
the  specific  meaning  of  buying  a  thing  by  paying  a  price  for  it ;  see  Is. 
55:  1,  where  "he  that  hath  no  money"  is  invited  "  to  huy  [i.  e.  procure 
sustenance]  without  money  and  without  price."  The  graces  bestowed 
by  the  Great  Head  of  the  church  are  not  hought  by  an  equivalent  price, 
but  are  obtained  nara  x^'^Qi^- 

rifiTZVQcofAivoi'  =  r;^i^,  expurgated  by  Jire,  Is.  1:  25.  Mai.  3:  2,  3, 
comp.  1  Pet.  1:  7.  The  meaning  is  :  '  I  counsel  thee  to  procure  of  me 
the  true  and  unadulterated  riches,  i.  e.  spiritual  gifts  and  graces,  so  that 
thou  mayest  be  rich  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.' — l^dna  X(-vy.u,  see 
on  V.  4  above.  It  is  not  the  Vestments  that  wealth  can  procure,  which 
they  need,  but  that  tohite  linen  which  is  the  righteousness  of  the  saints, 
Rev.  19:  8. — rv[iv6ztjt6g  gov  here  of  course  is  to  be  taken  in  the  spirit- 
ual sense. 

KoXXovQiov,  eye-salve,  a  medicament  (Wt.  construed)  for  sore  or  dis- 
eased eyes.  Here  it  is  the  eyes  of  their  spiritual 'understanding  which 
are  meant ;  although  the  imagery  is  taken  from  the  physical  eye. — The 
Saviour  hei-e  proposes  a  remedy  for  all  their  faults,  in  the  gifts  and  the 
graces  which  he  bestows.  He  is  the  source  of  all  spiritual  good  to  the 
believer.  In  and  through  him  are  all  the  blessings  bestowed  which  the 
Christian  needs. 

(19)  Whomsoever!  love,  I  reprove  and  chasten;  be  zealous,  therefore,  and 
repent. 

This  implies,  of  course,  that  they  were  still  in  some  degree  the  ob- 
jects of  his  love,  as  children;  comp.  Heb.  12:  6 — 8.  Pro  v.  3:  11,  12. 
— Eav  for  uv,  (see  Winer  §  43.  6  in  Note),  which  makes  cpilw  (Subj.) 
to  express  a  supposition  or  condition. — I  reprove  and  chasten  or  disci- 
pline. This  is  ap[)ropriate  here,  because  he  had  just  uttered  words 
of  sharp  rebuke  and  admonition. — Zijlaaov  is  directly  opposed  to  their 
state  of  frigidity  and  indifference  ;  q.  d.  rouse  up  to  energetic  Christian 
action  and  development. — Mezuvotjoov,  i.  e.  they  must  I'epent  of  the 
misconduct  which  he  had  been  reproving.   Comp.  Gal.  4:  18. 

(20)  Behold  I  stand  at  the  door  and  knock  ;  if  any  one  will  hearken  to  my 
voice,  and  open  the  door,  I  will  come  in  to  him  and  will  sup  with  him,  and  he 
with  me. 

"Earijxa  used  in  the  Pres.  tense ;    N.   Test.   Gramm.  §   136.  3.  c. 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  SEVEN  EPISTLES.  103 

^at.  I  have  talrn  my  station.  Tlio  imngery  here  employed  is  that  of 
the^'>«wiQUr  as  goinpr  rouiul  ainonj;  the  dwellinjis  of  the  Laodicean 
churches,  and  paying  a  visit  to  each,  and  hoUHng  friendly  intercourse 
with  the  inmates. — Kqoi'm  for  xotztco  ;  sometimes  so  in  the  Attic  Greek, 
but  not  very  common;  see  Lob.  ad  Phryn.  p.  177. 

Eup  Tiif  uy.ov(st]  T//!,'  (jpcoiv/i,'  fiov  refers  to  a  custom  of  the  person  who 
knocked,  to  speak  and  let  it  be  known  by  his  voice  who  he  was  ;  eomp. 
Acts  12:  13,  14.  Cant.  5:  2. — Jtinvi'iabi,  sup.  Supper  w;is  the  sociid 
and  the  principal  meal  of  the  ancients  ;  comp.  Gen.  19:  1 — 3.  18:  1 — 8. 
Here  the  addition  of  xui  «t)rOb  fier'  ifiov  shows,  that  the  Redeemer 
would  treat  the  penitent  and  obedient  members  of  this  backslidden 
church  with  the  greatest  condescension  and  kindness.  The  whole  is 
an  image  or  symbol  of  a  feast  (so  to  speak)  in  the  future  world.  Comp. 
Luke  14:  15.  22:  IG— 18.  Mark  14:  25.  Rev.  19:9.  Matt.  22:  2,3. 
See  a  kindred  idea,  but  in  a  mo*'e  intensive  form,  in  Rev.  3:  21. 

(21)  He  that  conqticretli — to  liim  will  1  give  to  sit  with  me  on  my  throne, 
even  as  I  overcame,  and  am  seated  with  my  Father  on  hii  throne. 

In  2:  7  we  have  tw  vr/.(avti  . .  .  avzfp,  but  here  6  vumv,  i.  e.  the  Nora, 
absolute.  Cases  of  the  Hke  nature  in  the  0.  Testament  Scriptures  are 
numerous.  They  are  not  unfrequent  in  the  New  ;  see  on  v.  5  above. 
— As  to  the  language  and  sentiment,  see  under  1:  6,  whei'e  nearly 
all  the  cases  of  this  nature  are  adduced  and  presented  to  the  view  of 
the  reader.  To  he  seated  on  the  Redeemer's  throne,  is  to  reign  with  him, 
Gvi(^ufii).ii'(jai  usT  avTOv ;  an  idea,vas  maybe  seen  by  consulting  the 
commentaiy  on  chap.  1:  6,  whiclj/is  frequent  in  the  O.  Testament  and 
in  the  New.  ^o  say  the  leastj  it  presents  to  our  view  a  most  vivid  and 
striking  image  of  tTie"1unire  exaltation  and  glory  of  the  saints.  The 
enthronization  of  the  Redeemer  here  spoken  of,  is  that  which  was 
awarded  to  him  on  account  of  his  having  achieved  the  mediatorial  work. 
In  c»»r  nature  he  then  became  enthroned  and  exalted;  PhiL  2:5 — 11. 
Heb.  1:  3.  8:  1.  The  like  to  this,,  i.  e.  so  far  as  our  nature  and  con- 
dition render  us  capable  of  being  elevated  and  glorified,  will  be  granted 
to  all  who  prove  to  be  final  victors  in  the  contest  with  the  world,  the 
flesh,  and  the  devil. 


General  Remarks  on  the  Seven  Epistles. 

At  the  close  of  the  preceding  particular  examination  of  these  Epistles, 
it  may  be  not  inapi>o3ite  to  make  a  few  suggestions  in  the  way  of  re- 
capitulation or  summary  criticism. 

Nothing  can  be  plainer,  than  that  they  are  the  result  of  a  specific 
design  and  plan  of  execution.     The  manner  in  which  they  all  commence 


104  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  SEVEN  EPISTLES. 

and  close ;  the  triplicity  of  their  contents  (see  Voh  I.  §  7.  p.  132)  ;  the 
intimate  connection  which  they  have  with  the  vision  which  precedes 
them,  and  with  the  visions  that  follow  (see  §  25,  p.  434),  thus  demon- 
strating the  iinity  of  the  whole  book;  the  fact  that  they  are  all  so  nearly 
of  the  same  length,  which  shows  a  special  regard  on  the  part  of  the 
writer  to  a  regular  plan  and  to  the  nature  of  the  book  in  which  they 
were  to  appear — all  these  things  are  obvious  to  the  attentive  reader.  It 
is  quite  plain,  too,  that  all  of  these  epistles  exhibit  incont^tible  marks 
of  having  been  written  at  a  time  when  the  churches  addressed  were  in 
a  state  of  persecution  and  of  peril,  (see  §  13.  p.  222  seq.).  Hence  the 
appositeness  of  the  succeeding  parts  of  the  book  to  such  a  state  of 
things.  As  to  the  matter  of  the  epistles,  it  has  been  taxed  with  an  un- 
usual degree  of  severity.  It  is  clear,  indeed,  that  no  part  of  the  N. 
Testament  exhibits  higher  demands  of  holiness  and  faith  than  this. 
The  standard  of  Christian  morals  and  fidelity  is  exceedingly  elevated 
and  unbending.  But  is  it  not  equally  clear,  that  a  spirit  of  tender  re- 
gard to  the  weaknesses  of  human  nature  is  manifested  throughout? 
The  speaker,  or  writer,  is  much  more  prone  to  commend  and  encourage, 
than  to  censure  or  reprove.  Where  he  finds  occasion  to  do  both,  his 
commendations  occupy  the  first  place;  see  Rev.  2:  2  seq.  2:  13  seq.  2: 
19  seq.  3:  8  seq.  Never  does  he  forget  to  hold  out  the  prospect  of  glo- 
rious reward  to  the  faithful  and  obedient,  and  thus  he  encourages  those 
who  were  ready  to  waver.  His  rebukes  are  indeed  awful ;  but  let  it 
be  remembered  that  the  heresy  of  Balaam,  which  infected  (as  it  would 
seem)  three  of  the  churches  (2:  6,  14,  20),  deserved  stern  rebuke.  So 
did  the  stupid  and  listless  state  of  the  church  at  Laodicea,  specially  at 
such  a  time  as  that.  In  a  word,  the  whole  shape  of  the  composition 
demonstrates  that  the  mind  which  dictated  it  was  in  a  high  and  intense 
state  of  feeling.  This  portion  of  the  work  belongs  to  a  book,  the  body 
of  which  is  conkssGAXyjpoetical,  and  does  itself  naturally  partake,  in  a 
high  degree,  of  the  nature  oTsuch  a  book. 

I  cannot  help  feeling,  that  when  all  these  considerations  are  taken  into 
view,  that  a  comparison  of  these  epistles  with  the  calm  and  hortatory 
epistles  of  John,  written  on  another  and  different  occasion,  and  in  later 
life,  should  be  made  with  all  due  allowances  for  the  respective  circum- 
stances of  each.  Conclusions  have  been  drawn  from  such  a  comparison, 
adverse  to  the  apostolic  origin  of  the  apocalyptic  epistles.  But  when  all 
the  circumstances  of  the  two  cases  so  diverse  are  well  weighed,  is  not 
the  conclusion  broader  than  the  premises  will  support  ? 

It  lies  on  the  very  face  of  these  epistles,  that  a  great  variety  of  char- 
acter and  circumstances,  in  many  respects,  is  brought  to  view.  The 
natural  consequence  is,  a  rich  harvest  of  practical  instruction  to  the 
churches  of  every  age.     AYell  may  we  say,  with  Paul  on  another  oeca- 


PRINCIPAL  VISIONS  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE.  105 

sion  :  "  These  things  happened  unto  them  for  ensamples ;  and  tliey  are 
written  for  our  admonition,  on  whom  the  ends  of  the  world  have  come." 
The  question  has  been  raised  and  agitated,  whether  John  sent  a  copy 
of  his  work  to  each  of  the  churches  addressed.  Some  have  supposed 
not  only  that  this  \v:is  the  case,  but  tliat  the  epistolary  part  was  omitted 
in  each  case,  with  the  exception  of  that  epistle  which  belonged  to  each 
pai'ticular  church  addressed.  But  the  manner  in  which  these  epistles 
are  all  connected  with  preceding  and  following  parts  of  the  book  and 
with  each  other,  seems  to  forbid  this  supposition.  As  to  the  number  of 
copies  which  John  wrote  out  for  the  churches,  we  have  no  means  of  de- 
ciding ;  nor  is  it  of  any  moment.  The  work  is  evidently  encyclical,  in 
its  very  nature ;  and  a  copy  sent  to  the  church  at  Ephesus,  would  be- 
yond all  doubt  ensure  the  circulation  of  the  book.  It  is  quite  possible, 
perhaps  even  prolmble,  that  John  occupied  some  of  the  lonely  hours  of 
his  exile,  in  writing  out  several  copies. 


^.i^^.i6s; 


PRINCIPAL  VISIONS  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE  :  IV.  1— XXII.  5. 

General  Remarks. 

We  come  now  to  the  Principal  Visions,  which  occupy  nearly  all  of  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  book,  in  which  the  future  prospects  of  the  Christian  church 
are  disclosed,  and  its  prosperity  and  the  overthrow  of  its  enemies  developed. 
Plain  is  it,  at  first  view,  tiiat  a  disclosure  like  this  would  serve  to  clieer  and  ani- 
mate the  persecuted  and  des|)onding  churciies,  and  contribute  much  to  their  j)cr- 
severance  in  the  Christian  faith.  Equally  plain  is  it  also,  that  the  same  disclo- 
sures are  adapted  to  accom])lish  a  similar  end,  in  every  age  of  the  church  until 
her  last  and  final  triumph.  No  book,  it  may  well  be  said,  is  better  adapted  to  be 
a  Vadc  Merum  for  the  heralds  of  the  cross,  in  foreign  and  heatlien  lands  and 
amidst  trials  and  discouragements,  than  the  book  before  us. 

I  have  named  the  subsequent  part  of  this  work  the  principal  Virions,  in  the  way 
of  distinction  from  the  vision  in  the  first  three  chapters  or  introductory  part.  ] 
do  not,  like  Ewald,  De  Wettc,  and  others,  regard  the  second  part  of  the  book  as 
constituting  but  one  continuous  vision,  merely  distinguisiicd  by  some  shifting  of 
the  scenes.  We  may  easily  see,  in  fact,  that  the  scene  is  very  nmch  changed, 
(comp.  as  examples,  4:  1,  2  and  12:  18;  also  14:  1  with  15:  1  ;  and  these  with 
17:  3.  Id:  1) ;  so  that  we  must  at  all  events  assume,  that  there  were  a  number  of 
distinct  and  different,  although  subordinate,  visions.  Sometimes  the  transition 
from  one  to  the  other  is  noted,  as  in  4:  1.  7:  1.  18:  1.  10:  ],  by  fitrd  ravra;  some- 
times the  transition  is  made  by  the  indication  of  a  new  station  or  sphere  of  vision, 
as  in  12:  18.  17:  3;  and  again  by  the  mere  conjunctive  yet  transitive  particle 
y.ru  (which  is  used  like  the  ^  in  '^r\'\  of  the  Hebrews),  with  the  concurrent  cit- 
cumstancos  which  are  related,  as  iii  10:  1.  12:  1.  14:  1.  15:  1.  20:  II.  There  is, 
undoubtedly,  a  general  unity  nj  design,  viz.  the  triumph  and  final  glory  of  the 
church,  and  the  disappointment,  defeat,  and  punishment  of  all  its  enemies.     But 

VOL.  IL  14 


106  theophant:  Chap.  IV.  » 

the  subordinate  parts  of  this  are  distinctly  marked  by  the  nature  of  the  contents 
of  the  book,  if  not  by  the  artificial  divisions  of  the  writer.  It  seems  to  lie  upon 
the  face  of  the  work,  that  there  are  three  great  catastrophes  in  it  (see  §  7  of  Vol.  ].), 
to  which  all  of  the  subordinate  and  intermediate  parts  are  to  be  referred  ;  and  that 
the  whole  is  crowned  by  a  view  of  the  complete  accomplishment  of  all  that  was 
intended  in  bringing  about  these  catastrophes,  and  which  had  been  promised  to 
the  faithful  servants  of  God.  The  first  part,  if  we  comprehend  the  general  intro- 
duction to  the  principal  visions,  extends  from  chap.  4:  ]  to  the  end  of  chap.  xi. 
The  second  part  from  chap.  12:  1  to  the  end  of  chap.  xix.  The  third  part  is  con- 
tained in  chap.  20:  1 — 10;  to  which  is  appended  the  final  results  and  the  future 
glory  of  the  church,  20:  11 — 21:  5.  These  catastrophes  are  distinctly  marked  by 
their  diverse  matter,  and  by  the  termination  of  each  with  the  overthrow  of  perse- 
cuting and  formidable  adversaries.  As  to  the  Exodium  as  we  may  name  it,  chap. 
20:  11 — 22:  5,  it  exhibits  the  crowning  part  of  the  whole — the  realization  of  all 
that  had  been  predicted  and  promised — so  that  here  the  general  unity  of  the  piece 
shines  forth  conspicuously.  The  close  of  the  book,  22:  6  seq.,  is  merely  matter 
pertaining  to  John  and  his  relation  to  his  readers — the  valedictory  of  one,  who  had 
been  long  and  earnestly  addressing  them  on  topics  of  a  most  interesting  nature. 
For  a  full  account  of  the  economy  of  the  book,  see  Vol.  1.  §  10. 


CHAPTER  rV^ 

Theophany,  or  Exordium  to  the  principal  Visions. 

The  Apocalyptist  has,  in  respect  to  his  exordium  or  introduction  to  the  princi- 
pal Visions,  followed  the  example  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel.  The  thenphanies  in  Is. 
VI,  where  the  prophet  is  consecrated  to  his  office  or  inaugurated  as  a  seer,  and  in 
Ezek.  I,  bear  so  strong  a  resemblance  to  the  one  before  us,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  mistake  the  similitude.  As  to  the  leading  elements,  however,  in  the  theophany 
recorded  by  John,  they  are  not  mere  imitations.  The  manner  of  them  is  such  as 
to  show  that  the  writer  thought  for  himself,  although  the  elements  of  thought,  or 
rather  o?  costume.,  were  drawn  from  the  ancient  Scriptures.  Their  contents  had 
in  fact  become  a  prominent  part  of  the  very  elements  of  his  own  thoughts.  Yet, 
while  all  this  is  plain  and  undeniable,  it  would  be  difficult  to  show  that  he  has  in 
any  case  merely  copied  them,  or  directly  intended  to  produce  nothing  more  than 
a  mere  imitation. 

In  regard  to  the  object  of  the  tlicophany  before  us  it  seems  proper  to  remark,  that 
the  scene  is  deeply  impressive,  and  is  well  adapted  to  produce  a  reverent  and  so- 
lemn attention  in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  Such  is  certainly  the  effect  upon  the 
mind  of  any  one,  who  reads  Is.  VI.  and  Ezek.  1.  in  an  intelligent  manner.  There 
is  also  a  manifest  propriety  in  the  theophany,  as  it  has  respect  to  the  preparation 
of  John's  mind  for  his  important  work.  A  vision  of  God,  in  his  awful  and  glo- 
rious majesty,  must  silence  every  unholy  or  forbidden  desire,  and  every  light  or 
wandering  imagination,  and  fix  the  attention  with  the  deepest  interest  on  the 
things  disclosed  in  the  sequel.  Such  a  preparation,  then,  is  evidently  congruous 
with  the  nature  of  the  case  and  the  object  to  be  accomplished. 

It  is  altogether  a  subordinate  question,  whether  anything  strictly  ocular,  in  this 
case,  was  exhibited.  It  seems  more  probable,  that  being  fV  7rj'6i'^«r<^  whatever 
was  seen  was  seen  with  the  eye  of  the  mind,  i.  e.  in  prophetic  ecstasy.  If  Paul 
coujd  not  tell  whether  he  was  in  or  out  of  the  body,  in  a  similar  case  (2  Cor.  12: 


^.^•«. 


THEOPHANY:    ChAP.   IV.  lOt 

2),  it  does  not  seem  altojrether  congruous  to  assume  mere  literal  and  ocular  vi- 
sion in  these  cases.  The  scenes  are  too  high  and  holy  and  spiritual  to  be  witness- 
ed with  the  mere  fleshly  eye.  The  spirit  only  seems  capable  of  beholding  them, 
in  their  true  attitudes. 

There  is  another  view  of  this  case,  however,  which  seems  to  be  adopted  by 
most  of  the  recent  German  writers  on  the  Apocalypse.  This  is,  that  the  whole 
representation  is  simply  the  production  of  the  author's  imagination  ;  and  they 
compare  this  with  tiie  factitious  visions,  which  poets,  and  some  other  writers  of 
fancy,  so  often  introduce  into  their  compositions. 

If  now  we  should  say,  tiiat  tiie  substance  of  chap.  IV.  may  be  comprehended  in 
the  following  statement,  viz.,  that  the  mind  of  the  Apocalyplist  was  deeply  im- 
pressed with  a  pervading  sense  of  God's  power  and  glory  ;  that  by  being  brought 
into  such  a  state  it  was  prepared  for  the  prophetic  disclosures  which  follow  ;  and 
that  the  writer  has  merely  undertaken  to  designate  these  simj)le  trutiis,  by  the 
employment  of  symbols  and  of  figurative  poetic  language  ;  this  would  not,  per- 
haps, detract  much  from  the  essential  meaning  of  the  communications  in  the 
Apocalypse.  Assuming  merely  this,  we  might  say  that  the  imagination  and  fancy 
of  the  writer  were  in  active  and  vigorous  e.xercise,  when  selecting  and  employing 
the  imagery  contained  in  chap.  IV.  The  appeal  might  even  be  made  to  Ps.  xviii. 
and  Is.  xiv.  for  striking  examples  of  a  similar  method  of  composition,  where  the 
costume  appears  to  be  supplied  by  the  imagination  of  the  writer.  To  my  own 
mind,  however,  the  whole  matter  in  the  present  case,  notwithstanding  the  differ- 
ent view  of  it  just  suggested,  appears  in  a  diiferent  light.  In  chap.  4:  2  the  wri- 
ter says  :  6v&tojg  iytvofir^v  tv  ■jivivuari,  and  then  goes  on  to  relate  his  ecstatic 
vision.  Guided  by  this,  1  cannot  doubt  that  we  are  to  regard  the  sequel,  as  in- 
tended by  the  writer  to  be  considered  as  having  passed  before  the  eye  of  his  mind, 
while  rapt  into  prophetic  vision.  Why  should  not  the  writer,  in  the  present  case, 
be  considered  as  his  own  best  interpreter  .'  1  know  there  are  those  who  disdain 
the  idea  of  inspiration ;  but  1  do  not  and  cannot  think  with  them. 

The  substance  of  this  introdactonj  vision  may  be  designated  in  a  few  words. 
Heaven  is  opened,  and  God  is  seen  enthroned  in  radiant  splendour.  Around  his 
throne  are  gathered  the  elders  of  the  church,  and  the  presence-angels.  Light- 
ning and  thunder,  as  on  Sinai  of  old,  announce  the  awful  presence  of  the  God- 
head. Before  the  throne  is  a  pellucid  pavement,  like  chrystal.  The  throne  is 
supported  by  four  living  creatures,  filled  with  ej'es,  (in  order  to  denote  their  watch- 
fulness and  perspicacity),  and  each  one  has  a  face  symbolic  of  some  leading  class 
of  created  beings.  They  are  furnished  with  wings,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
presented  as  "  swift  to  do  the  will  of  God."  These  living  creatures  pay  contin- 
ual homage  to  the  Godhead,  whose  throne  they  support.  The  elders  who  sur- 
round the  throne  echo  their  lofty  strains,  and  adore  and  praise  the  Maker  of  hea- 
ven and  earth. 

Such  is  the  iheophany  of  chap.  IV. ;  more  expanded  than  that  of  Is.  VI.  but  still 
exhibiting  some  of  its  distinctive  characteristics  ;  less  expanded  than  that  of 
Ezek.  I,  but  still  proffering  many  traits  of  resemblance.  The  author  has  evident- 
ly combined  the  leading  features  of  both  ;  while  the  material  furnished  by  them 
receives  its  peculiar  shape,  afliT  all,  from  his  own  plastic  hand,  as  we  shall  see 
in  the  sequel.  The  continued  theophany  in  chap.  v.  will  be  separately  considered 
in  its  appropriate  place. 


Kd^ 


108  THEOPHANT  :  ChAP.   IV.  1. 

(1)  After  these  things  I  looked,  and  behold  !  a  door  opened  in  heaven;  and  the 
first  voice  which  I  had  heard,  as  of  a  trumpet  speaking  with  me,  said  :  Come  up 
hither,  and  I  will  show  thee  what  must  take  place  hereafter. 

Mf-Tu  ravza,  i.  e.  after  the  things  related  in  the  preceding  vision ; 
which  of  course  shows  the  intimate  connection  belAveen  the  two,  and 
that  the  preceding  vision  had  already  been  described.  Bbto  long  after 
the  fii-st  vision  the  second  commenced,  the  writer  does  not  say.  Nor 
does  he,  at  the  close  of  chap,  iii,  mention  the  cessation  of  the  first  vi- 
sion, nor  the  departure  of  the  Saviour.  Still,  the  nature  of  the  transi- 
tion before  us  plainly  indicates  this  cessation  and  departure ;  yea,  even 
more,  for  in  v.  3  we  are  expressly  told  that  the  writer  again  became  en- 
tranced, ev&iwg  iyf-v6p]v  iv  7ivtv}iazi,  which  plainly  indicates  that  his 
former  trance  had  passed  away,  and  that  some  interval  of  time,  (we  can- 
not tell  how  much),  had  elapsed. 

El8or,  I  looked,  more  lit.  /  perceived ;  ^.tTtm  more  appropriately 
means  to  look.  Yet  the  sense  here  seems  evidently  to  require  an  ex- 
pression, which  indicates  the  action  of  looking  in  order  to  perceive. 
The  demands  of  our  English  idiom,  therefore,  are  better  answered  by 
the  verb  looked. — QvQa  urecpyfispt],  a  door  opened.  The  Hebrews  re- 
garded the  >"'p'i ,  i.  e.  the  visible  expanse  of  the  heavens,  as  a  solid  and 
extended  ceiling  or  arch  over  the  earth.  The  rain,  according  to  their 
popular  idiom,  comes  down  through  the  windoivs,  i.  e.  apertures,  of 
heaven  ;  and  God,  who  dwells  above  this  expanse,  can  of  course  be 
seen  only  by  the  opening  of  the  heavens.  So  in  Ezek.  1:  1,  "  The 
heavens  were  opened,  and  I  saw  visions  of  God."  On  this  passage  our 
author  doubtless  had  his  eye.  John  speaks  of  d^vqa  dvscpyiit'vt],  which 
is  only  a  varied  mode  of  expressing  the  same  idea  that  is  designated  by 
diiferent  phraseology  in  Ezekiel.  Comp.  Matt.  3:  16.  Luke  3:  21. 
Acts  7:  56.  10:  11,  all  in  accordance  with  Ezekiel.  Comp.  also,  Ascens. 
Is.  6:  6.  10:  24  seq. 

The  voice  which  he  heard  seems  plainly  to  be  that  of  the  Redeemer, 
speaking  from  the  heavenly  world,  comp.  the  sequel ;  he  does  not  now  ap- 
pear on  earth,  as  in  the  first  vision,  1:  10  seq. — //  qjoxpij  i]  nQazij  iiv  ijxov- 
aa,  i.  e.  the  accents  or  tone  of  the  voice,  on  this  occasion,  were  so  like 
those  in  the  former  vision,  that  John  at  once  recognized  them  as  pro- 
ceeding from  the  same  person.  The  reader  should  note  here,  how  in- 
timately and  necessarily  this  sacred  vision  is  connected  with  the  first,  by 
allusions  of  such  a  nature.  For  ag  odlniyyog  ■/..  r.  A.,  see  on  1:  10. — 
Aiycav,  where  we  should  expect  Xtyovaa  agreeing  with  qsavri.  The 
construction  is  certainly  not  according  to  the  usual  laws  of  syntax. 
Still,  Itywv  is  not  in  fact  to  be  taken  as  strictly  agreeing  with  cpavi'i. 
The  matter  stands  thus  :  "  Lo  !  a  door  opened  in  heaven,  and  [lo  !J  the 
first  voice  which,  etc." — Xiyav  said  =  ^v  Xt'ycop,  (for  so  the  participle 


1:* 


THEOPHANY :  Chap.  IV.  2.  3.  lO0r 

is  often  constructed  in  the  Apocalypse),  and  this  refers  to  the  person 
who  uttered  the  voice,  the  consti'uctiou  depending  on  an  assumed  mc- 
ton}Tny ;  but  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  128.  5.  b,  which  shows,  that  even 
in  case  we  as>unic  a  union  witli  cpat/j,  the  Hke  is  found  in  the  cUi^sics. 
Or  we  may  explain  it,  (as  Ewald  does),  by  supposing  h'yoor  to  be  used 
as  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  'i"2X^ ,  which  of  course  has  no  gender. 
The  Sept.  sometimes  translate  this  by  Xt'ycov,  e.  g.  Gen.  15:  1. 

Jird^a  fo^f,  comp.  11:  12.  The  ascension  or  going  up  of  course  has 
relation  to  the  apparent  elevation  of  the  heavens  above  us. — Ava^a  is 
the  usual  apocopate  form  of  Aor.  2  (formed  after  the  model  of  verbs  in 
-p),  for  avuj^ifOi,  from  dva^atvo). — ^Side,  hither,  a.  demonstrative  adverb, 
belonging  to  later  Greek  usage,  and  to  the  poets.  The  writer  does  not 
intimate  iu  what  way  he  was  borne  to  the  upper  regions.  Paul  says  : 
UQna'i'ivra  t(o^  7(>i'tov  ovquvov,  2  Cor.  12:  1,  2.  In  Rev.  17:  3,  John 
says :  dnijvtyxs  fie  [o  «}7iP.0i,']  i/V  sQrjuov.  Ezekiel  speaks  of  being 
taken  up  by  the  Spirit,  3:  12 ;  and  even  of  being  carried  by  a  lock  of 
his  hair,  8:  3.  The  writer  in  the  present  case  has  omitted  everything 
of  this  nature  ;  seemingly  because  he  was  so  absorbed  in  his  main  theme, 
that  such  circumstances  were  to  his  feelings  compai-atively  less  impor- 
tant. If  the  reader  will  compare  the  like  ascensions  as  related  in  the 
book  of  Enoch,  he  will  perceive  a  gi'eat  difference  between  the  taste  and 
genius  of  the  two  writers,  quite  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  latter ;  see 
Enoch  14:  9—24.  39:  3.  70:  1—6.  86:  2.  In  the  first  two  cii^es  here, 
the  winds  elevate  the  seer,  (imagery  drawn  probably  from  the  whirl- 
wind which  elevated  Elijah)  ;  in  the  two  latter,  the  hand  of  some  su- 
pernatural being  lifts  him  up. 
t 

(2)  And  immediately  I  was  in  the  spirit ;  and  behold  !  a  throne  was  set  in 
heaven,  and  on  the  throne  was  One  sitting. 

'Ev  nvEVfian,  see  on  1:  10. — QQovog  txeno,  not  that  the  seer  beheld 
the  placing  or  stationing  of  a  tin-one  which  had  been  recently  brought 
there,  but  the  idea  is,  that  he  saw  it  as  already  fixed  or  established. — 
On  this  throne  was  Ka&r^ntvog,  q.  d.  the  unnameable,  indescribable 
Godhead;  comp.  Rev.  20:  11.  "Reticetur  nomen  ob  reverentiam." 
There  can  in  this  case  be  no  doubt  who  is  meant ;  and  the  manner  of 
expression  certainly  fills  the  mind  with  mysterious  awe.  Comp.  Dan. 
7:  9.  In  Enoch  14:  21  seq.  is  a  passage  much  like  the  present  one 
with  its  sequel ;  yet  the  advantage  as  to  taste  in  composition,  is  quite  on 
the  side  of  John. 

(3)  And  he  who  sat  was  in  appearance  like  to  a  jasper  stone  and  a  sardian  ; 
and  there  was  a  rainbow  round  about  the  throne,  in  appearance  like  to  an  em- 
erald. 

'0  xa&/iftevos,  here  the  repetition  of  the  word  demands  the  ai'ticle. 


110  THEOPHANY:  Chap.  IV.  4. 

— 'Ogdaei,  the  Dat.  signifying  in  regard  to  appearance  ;  showing  that 
the  writer  was  acquainted  with  the  classical  idiom  in  respect  to  the  use 
of  the  Dative. — 'Idanidt,  to  the  jasper,  a  precious  stone  of  various  col- 
ours, purple,  cerulaean,  green,  etc.  Here,  no  doubt,  the  red  or  purple  is 
intended,  in  order  to  designate  the  resplendence  of  the  divine  Majesty. 
— So  also  aaQdicf),  means  a  precious  stone  of  Mood-red  or  carnation  hue. 
Both  images  together  denote  the  powerful  splendour  which  beamed  from 
him  who  sat  upon  the  tlu'one.  Ezekiel  (1:  26,  27)  compares  him  who 
sat  on  the  throne  to  ^^dn ,  i.  e.  polished  brass,  and  also  to  fire.  The 
images  in  John  are  more  select,  and  withal  more  splendid. 

The  iQig  or  rainbow  around  the  throne  is  an  exquisite  conception. 
Such  was  the  splendour  of  the  throne  that  the  eye  could  not  bear  it.  It 
is  softened  by  this  beautiful  veil  cast  over  the  scene. — ^uaQaydivoj,  em- 
erald, is  of  a  gi-een  hue.  The  Ms  is  compared  to  it  hei-e,  because  the 
modified  and  mild  colour  of  green  apparently  predominates  in  the  rain- 
bow, and  delights  the  eye  of  every  beholder.  Ezekiel  (1:  28)  presents 
the  like  imagery ;  but  he  presents  it  less  distinctly  and  definitely  than 
here.  John  exhibits  the  Iqig  again  in  Rev.  10:  1,  as  surrounding  the 
radiant  head  of  an  angel. — "O^oiog  as  agreeing  with  [//]  l()ig  here  has 
stumbled  the  critics.  Ewald  (p.  46)  proposes  to  translate  thus  :  "  Iris 
circa  thronum,  similis  [est]  thronus  smaragdo ;"  unnaturally,  to  say 
the  least.  Much  easier  is  another  solution.  The  Attics  more  usually 
employed  adjectives  ending  in  -tog  -(jtog  -eiog  -ulog,  as  adjectives  of  only 
two  endings.  "Oiioiog  then  may,  by  good  usage,  be  feminine  here  ;  and 
then  all  difficulty  vanishes ;  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  32.  1.  c. 

(4)  And  round  about  the  throne  were  four  and  twenty  thrqpes,  and  on  these 
thrones  four  and  twenty  elders  sitting,  clothed  in  white  garments,  and  crowns  of 
gold  upon  their  heads. 

The  arrangement  of  the  scenery  before  the  mental  eye  of  the  prophet, 
is  to  be  regarded  thus :  The  throne  of  God  is  in  the  midst  of  the  circle 
of  a  great  assembly ;  the  presence-angels  stand  immediately  on  either 
hand  and  before  him  who  is  on  the  throne ;  although  they  are  not  men- 
tioned until  afterwards  in  v.  5.  Next  beyond  these,  in  the  circle,  are 
the  twenty-four  thrones  of  the  elders.  Why  thrones  ?  Because,  they 
are  kings  and  priests  to  God,  and  will  reign  forever  and  ever ;  see  1:  6, 
and  the  references  there  given,  and  especially  Rev.  3:  21.  Throne 
means  a  magnificent  or  regal  seat.  The  emphatic  meaning  of  the  whole 
verse  should  be  noted.  Presence-angels  stand  in  the  attitude  of  minis- 
tering servants,  Rev.  8:  2 ;  the  redeemed  sit  on  thrones  in  the  presence 
of  God.     For  a  like  sentiment,  comp.  1  Cor.  6:  2,  3. 

But  why  twenty-four  ?  Some  say  :  Because  there  are  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel,  and  twelve  apostles ;  and  so  here  are  representatives  both  for 
the  ancient  and  for  the  Christian  church,  corresponding  to  each  of  the 


theophant:  Chap.  IV.  5.  Ill 

tribes  of  Israel.  But  the  Cliristian  church,  so  far  as  it  comes  from  the 
Gentile  world,  is  not  made  up  of  twelve  nations  or  tribes.  A  more  pro- 
bable reason  is,  that  the  priests  were  di\  ided  by  David  into  twenty-tbur 
classes,  (1  Chron.  24:  3 — 19,  comp.  Luke  1:  5,  f|  itpijfifQi'a^^  Jij^tu), 
each  of  which  had  a  head ;  and  these  presided  over  all  the  services  of 
the  temple.  So,  in  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  temple  above,  Chris- 
tians, who  are  "  made  priests  unto  God,"  take  the  lead  in  the  services 
there,  and  approach  near  to  the  divine  presence.  The  form  of  the  re- 
presentation is  borrowed  from  the  course  and  manner  of  worship  in  the 
earthly  temple.  Comp.,  as  to  the  twenty-four  divisions  of  the  priests, 
the  twenty-five  men  in  the  temple,  Ezek.  8:  IG  and  11:  1,  i.  e.  this  in- 
cludes the  high  priest  and  the  twenty-four  heads  of  the  orders  of  the 
priesthood.  In  Ezekiel  they  are  introduced  as  leading  the  profane  wor- 
ship which  they  practised.  Ilnea^vTSQOi,  in  our  text,  is  a  name  of  dig- 
nity =  c^iiT" ,  and  expressive  of  the  orderly  precedence  which  these 
leaders  of  heavenly  worship  enjoyed. 

nneaSvTtQOvg,  xa&ijiiivovg,  7xeQi^t^hj[it'iovg,  and  aregxirovg,  all  in 
the  Ace.  case,  where  we  should  of  course  expect  the  Nom.,  as  &q6voi  in 
the  leading  clause  stands  in  the  Nominative.  But  this  change  of  case  in 
participles,  which  make  separate  clauses  in  a  sentence,  and  thus  form  a 
kind  of  independent  sentence,  is  frequent  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  not  by 
any  means  unknown  to  the  classic  writers ;  see  Winer  de  Soloecismis 
etc.  Apoc,  p.  150,  Exeget.  Studien,  Heft  I,  who  gives  examples  of  the 
like  from  the  classics.  Also  Liicke  Einl.  §  27.  4,  and  N.  Test.  Gramm. 
§  172.  3.  Here,  the  regimen  of  the  Ace,  as  seems  quite  probable,  is  to 
be  made  out  from  an  implied  eldov,  comp.  v.  1.  The  order  of  the  con- 
ceptions is :  i8ov  -^Qovog  .  .  .  S^qovoi  .  .  .  -aui  ddov  TTQsa^vztQOvg  x.  t.  X. 

TltQi^epjlutvovg  fv,  so  with  the  preposition  in  3:  5 ;  elsewhere  fre- 
quently, even  in  the  Apocalypse,  with  the  direct  Ace,  as  is  common  in 
Greek  ;  see  Rev.  7:  9, 13.  10: 1.  11:  3,  al.  Either  method  of  construc- 
tion was  open  to  the  writer. — 'ifiaziotg  Xe.vy.oig,  see  on  3:  4  above. — 
2^Ti:(fuvovg  YQ^fJovg,  because  they  were  kinys  and  priests,  and  sat  en- 
throned. 

(5)  .\nd  from  the  throne  go  forth  lightning  and  voices  of  thunder;  and  seven 
lamps  of  fire  were  burning  before  the  throne,  which  are  the  seven  spirits  of  God. 

The  reader  will  easily  recall  the  phenomena  of  mount  Sinai,  when 
God  descended  upon  it.  As  there  so  here,  lightning  and  thunder  are 
the  ensigns  of  his  presence  and  awful  majesty.  Comp.  also  the  theoplia- 
ny  in  Ezek.  1:  13,  24. — (hoovai  xul  §qovxuI,  lit.  voices  even  thunders  ; 
which  of  course  means  what  I  have  expressed  in  the  version.  The  im- 
agery is  awfully  sublime  and  terrific.  The  throne,  and  He  who  sat  up- 
on it,  are  of  such  excessive  brightness  that  a  rainbow  is  needed  to  shield 


112  theophant:  Chap.  IV.  6,  7. 

the  eye  which  beholds  them.  From  this  radiance  lightnings  are  shot 
forth,  and  thunders,  as  Ezekiel  says,  "  like  the  noise  of  the  mighty  wa- 
ters." The  i^resent  tense  (IxnoQevortai)  in  an  ^ewsu'e  sense,  designat- 
ing what  is  often  done. 

'ETird  XafiTzudsg  .  .  .  nvEVfiara  zov  dsov,  i.  e.  seven  resplendent  glo- 
rious beings,  all  radiant  like  burning  torches  or  lamps,  stood  waiting 
before  the  throne,  to  receive  the  commands  of  him  who  sat  upon  it ;  see 
on  3:  1,  where  this  subject  is  fully  discussed ;  also  Comm.  on  1:  4,  with 
the  Excursus  on  the  Angelology  of  the  Scriptures.  Comp.  also  Ezek. 
1:  13. 

(6)  And  before  the  throne,  as  it  were  a  sea  of  glass  like  to  chrystal ;  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  throne,  and  round  about  the  throne  were  four  living  creatures  filled 
with  eyes  before  and  behind. 

(7)  And  the  first  living  creature  was  like  to  a  lion  ;  and  the  second  living  crea- 
ture like  to  an  ox  ;  and  the  third  living  creature  had  a  face  like  a  man  ;  and  the 
fourth  living  creature  was  like  to  a  flying  eagle. 

Having  described  the  throne,  him  who  sat  upon  it,  the  presence-angels 
in  waiting  before  it,  and  the  worshippers  on  their  thrones  around  it,  the 
writer  next  proceeds  to  describe  the  pavement  on  which  the  whole 
stood.  It  was  like  a  sea  of  glass  ;  i.  e.  it  was  resplendent  and  pellucid, 
and  (as  he  adds)  like  to  chrystal.  The  pavements,  or  as  we  say,  floors., 
of  palaces  and  elegant  houses  of  the  East,  are  constructed  with  expen- 
sive and  splendid  materials.  Here  the  idea  is,  that  the  pavements  or 
floors  are  all  of  precious  and  diaphanous  stones,  appearing  to  him 
who  should  walk  upon  them  peUucid,  like  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  .  In 
the  Coran  (Sur.  27:  44),  Belkis  (the  Sabaean  queen  who  is  said  to  vis- 
it Solomon)  is  represented  as  supposing  the  pavement,  on  which  she 
walks  in  the  audience-hall,  to  be  a  sea.  Down  to  the  present  hour,  the 
tesselated  pavements  in  the  parlours  of  the  Arabs  at  Cairo,  are  construct- 
ed with  great  art  and  expense  in  a  similar  way ;  as  Mr.  Lane  has  shown 
in  his  excellent  book  on  the  Modern  Egyptians.  Comp.  the  chrystal 
firmament  in  Ezek,  1:  22,  which,  of  course  constitutes  the  'pavement  of 
the  throne  above  it;  see  Ezek.  1:  22,  26,  and  especially  Ex.  24:  10. 
So  in  the  Rabbins ;  e.  g.  Pirqe  Elieser :  "  Locus  in  quo  thronus  stat, 
sunt  septem  nubes  gloriae."  As  to  the  epithet  valivt],  glassy,  transpa- 
rent, see  examples  even  ad  satietatem  of  the  like  nature  from  the  clas- 
sics, applied  to  water  and  to  the  sea,  in  Wetstein  in  loc. — for  excess  in 
such  quotations  is  a  fault  to  which  he  is  not  a  little  prone. 

^Ev  fisaqy  here  is  not  to  be  understood  as  if  the  ^(u«  occupied  a  place 
within  the  throne  itself;  for  there  God  was  seated.  It  is  easily  explain- 
ed by  a  reference  to  the  converse  of  it,  viz.  xvxho  tov  &q6vov  ;  so  that 
iv  nt'ocp  TOV  d^Qovov  (=  '2'^p,^)  plainly  means  (as  we  should  express  it) 
under  the  throne.     The  whole  imagery  is  to  be  conceived  of  thus  :  The 


1 


theophant:  Chap.  IV.  G,  7.  Hd 

throne  on  which  the  divine  Majesty  is  seated,  rests  upon  four  living 
oroatures,  who  form  its  animated  and  moving  basis.  Instead  of  being 
hke  the  tlirone  of  (.'arthly  liinjrs,  i.  e.  restiiiir  upon  inanimate  and  lifeless 
substances,  its  sup|)ort  is  constituted  of  living,  moving,  rational  erea- 
tiires,  ever  watchful,  and  ever  ready  to  move,  as  Ezekicd  says,  like  "  a 
Hash  of  lightning,"  Ezek.  1:  14.  These  living  creatures  are  represent- 
ed as  endowed  with  forms  which  are  symbolical  and  highly  significant ; 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel.  They  are  full  of  eyes,  i.  e.  they  are  ever 
wakeful  and  watchful,  looking  every  way,  seeing  everything,  and  ready 
to  move  in  any  direction.  They  are,  taken  as  a  whole  in  respect  to  their 
ultimate  design,  symbolic  of  the  all-pervading  power,  providence,  and 
government  of  God  who  uses  them  as  his  instruments.  IVie  first  has  the 
appearance  of  a  lion  ;  and  the  lion  is  the  king  of  wild  beasts,  and  an  im- 
age borrowed  from  him  is  indicative  of  power,  strength,  sway.  The 
second  is  like  to  an  ox  ;  and  this  is  the  most  valuable  of  tame  beasts, 
and  the  image  of  patient  and  useful  labour.  77i(?  third  has  the  face  of  a 
man  ;  and  this  is  indicative  of  reason  or  intelligence.  The  fourth  is  like 
to  an  eagle  ;  and  this  indicates  velocity  and  far-sighted  and  penetrating 
vision.  The  special  meaning  of  these  symbols  is  not  to  be  applied  im- 
mediately or  directly  to  the  attributes  of  God  himself,  but  to  be  regard- 
ed as  primarily  indicative  of  powers  possessed  b}''  the  ^(Hu.  Yet  these 
4cja,  thus  constituted,  are  themselves  symbolic  of  the  attributes  of  the  God- 
head. These  living  beai'ers  of  the  Almighty's  throne,  as  the  author  I'ep- 
resents  the  matter,  serve  him  with  great  power,  with  patient  obedience, 
with  quickness  of  intelligence  and  reason,  and  with  a  rapidity  and  per- 
spicacity which  may  indeed  be  compared  to  that  of  the  eagle,  but  of  which 
this  king  of  birds  is  after  all  only  a  faint  image.  The  same  may  in 
truth  be  said  of  all  the  other  symbols ;  but  then,  imperfect  as  they  are, 
they  are  the  best  which  the  natural  woi'ld  could  atlord,  and  are  therefore 
chosen  by  the  author  with  good  reason.  The  ultimate  meaning  is : 
God  is  everywhere  present,  and  executes  his  purposes  by  an  agency 
powerful,  wise,  unremitted,  and  speedy  whenever  speed  is  required. 

Add  to  all  this,  that  each  is  furnished  with  six  wings  (v.  8),  i.  e.  three 
pair  of  wings  (see  Is.  6:  2)  ;  plainly  to  heighten  the  idea  that  they  exe- 
cute the  divine  commands  with  the  gi'eatest  possible  speed.  These  be- 
ings, moreover,  endowed  with  such  amazing  powers,  are  employed  with- 
out cessation  in  adoring  and  praising  God,  and  seem  to  take  the  lead  in 
the  worship  of  heaven,  as  being  nearest  of  all  to  the  divine  Majesty,  i.  e. 
supporters  of  his  throne. 

After  this  general  view,  we  may  nowjiescend  to  the  examination  of 
particulars. — Zdu,  correspon^Tiigln  sense  to  the  r.Tn  of  Ezekiel  (1:  5 
seq.),  i.  e.  hving,  animated,  moving  beings. — rtfiovza  .  .  .  oTzia&ev  i 

VOL.  II.  15 


114  theophany:  Chap.  IV.  6,  7. 

the  reason  of  this  has  been  already  stated  above.  Comp.  the  attempts 
among  the  heathen  to  designate  perpetual  watchfulness  and  power  to 
see  in  all  directions,  in  the  fable  of  Argus. — "EfiTTQOO&sv  means  the  front 
part  or  faces  of  the  living  creatures,  which  stood  out  fi'om  the  side  or  y 
bottom  of  the  throne  that  rested  upon  their  bodies  ;  i.  e.  their  heads  were 
not  under  the  throne,  but  merely  their  bodies.  "OniaOHv  therefore  means 
the  bodies  or  hinder  parts  which  were  under  the  throne,  and  not  promi- 
nent extra  thromim.  In  Ezek.  1:  18  and  10:  12,  every  part  of  this  an- 
imated basis  of  the  throne,  i.  e.  every  part  of  the  living  creatures,  their 
hands,  their  wings,  and  even  wheels  underneath  them,  are  all  represent- 
ed as  hiiing  Jilled  with  eyes.  Thia._luxui'iant  ina^gination  is  modified  in 
the  pi'esent  case  ;  indeed  the  apparatus  of'fhe  wheels  is  wholly  omitted, 
and  eyes  are  here  given,  as  it  would  seem,  only  to  the  head  and  body  of 
the  ^c5« ;  a  disposition  of  tlie  imagery  more  congruous  with  our  usual  f, 

modes  of  conception  than  that  of  Ezekiel.  ^ 

To  "Q^nv  TO  TTQOJZov  ofioiov  Xtovn — like  to  a  lion.  As  to  the  face 
only,  or  as  to  that  and  the  whole  body  ?  The  writer  tells  us  specially, 
respecting  the  third  ^cJor,  that  it  had  the  face  of  a  man,  i.  e.  that  the 
face  only  resembled  that  of  a  man  ;  for  the  body  must  stand  under  thftjP^pt^ 
throne  as  one  of  its  supports,  which  would  be  incongruous  with  the  " 
shape  of  a  human  body.  The  lion,  the  ox,  and  the  eagle,  however,  we 
may  easily  conceive  of  as  having  their  bodies  under  the  throne,  whilei 
their  heads  appeared  as  prominent  on  the  outside  of  it,  and  not  covered 
by  it.  The  fact  that  the  face  of  the  third  (^mov  was  human,  does  not 
oblige  us  to  imagine  a  human  body  also  ;  for  it  is  evident  from  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  the  (^aov  is  placed,  that  such  a  body  would  be  un- 
fit for  the  object  in  view.  Consequently  we  are  obliged  to  assign  some 
other  form  to  the  body  than  that  of  a  man.  But  what  this  other  form 
should  be,  the  writer  has  not  told  us.  May  we  not  then,  on  the  whole, 
suppose  that  the  authoi',  by  his  similitudes,  has  designed  in  each  and  all 
the  cases  only  to  characterize  the  face  of  each  ^oior,  and  that  the  bodies 
of  all  are  alike,  being  one  common  form  adapted  to  support  the  throne 
on  a  level  and  equally  ?  The  author  indeed  has  not  told  us  what  this 
common  form  of  the  body  was ;  but  as  he  has  represented  it  as  iv  ^leacp 
zov  {fQovov,  i.  e.  under  the  throne,  a  body  like  that  of  the  lion,  or  the 
ox,  would  seem  to  be  the  most  appro})riate  for  the  support  of  that  throne. 
The  representation  in  Ezekiel  is  different  in  this  respect,  each  ^aov 
having  four  faces,  and  a  body  like  that  of  a  man  ;  Ezek.  1:  5,  10.  In 
the  sequel,  a  comparison  of  the  two  representations  will  be  made  with 
more  particularity. 

Mooxq}  does  not  mean  calf  here,  as  our  English  version  has  it,  but 
bos  juvencus,  a-^auug  bullock,  vigorous  and  alert;  and  the  nature  of  the 
imagery  demands  this  last  signification.     So  in  the   Septuagint  (looxog 


THEOPHANY  :    ClIAP.   IV.  8.  llA 

for  ^5S  oftentimes,  and  fu'tay^og  for'irj,  "iB ,  and  i;^2 ,  very  often ;  see 
Tronmi.  Coni'ord. — Jltno  TzeTOfiiroj,  ajlying  eagle.  If  one  should  ask  : 
Why  the  epithet  iiging  ?  What  eagles  do  not  fly  ?  The  answer  is, 
L  that  such  epithets  an',  coiumon  everywhere,  jis  adding  to  the  intensity 
of  the  descri[)tion.  No  bird  exhibits  a  flight  so  powerful  and  rai)id  as 
the  eagle,  and  this  characteristic  is  designated  here  by  the  epithet  nero- 
fie'vou  All  birds  have  wings  ;  yet  the  Scriptures  often  speak  of  winged 
fowl.  Is  it  an  objection  to  the  phrase  radiant  light,  that  all  light  is 
necessarily  radiant,  and  therefore  the  epithet  is  superfluous  ?  Intensity., 
__  in  such  avses,  is  marked  by  phraseology  of  this  nature. 

(S)  And  the  four  liviriij  ctt-atures,  each  one  of  them  having  respectively  six 
wings,  around  and  within  are  filled  with  eyes,  and  thoy  have  no  rest,  daj'  and 
night  saying,  Holy!  holy  I  hily  !  Lord  God  Almighty,  who  is  and  was  and  is 
to  come  ! 

Ev  y.a&'  IV  marks  severally,  or  particularizes. — "Ej^nv,  Part.  Noni.  ab- 
solute here,  with  ir  for  its  subject,  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  97.  2.  §  172.  5. 
J/iii  (adverb)  denotes  distributioa  to  each  ;  see  Lex. — Tlztovyag  ti,  six 
tcings,  i.  e.  three  pair  of  wings ;  comp.  Is.  6:  2. — KvxXo&tv  .  .  .  ogiO^wP.- 
2W  f'Wi',  aroundy  i.  e.  on  the  external  part  which  appeared  prominent  with- 
^  -out  the  throne,  and  witln'?i,  i.  e.  on  their  bodies  which  were  under  the 
,e  throne,  were  they  filled  with  eyes.  According  to  the  reading  of  the 
xt  in  Knapp,  Hahn,  and  Lachmann,  we  have  yt'fjovatv,  where  the^e- 
ceptus  reads  yijiovza  (Part.)  referring  to  the  ttaa.  The  support  of  the 
other  reading  (ytuovaiv)  might  entitle  it,  perhaps,  to  a  place  ;  although 
there  is  no  necessity  for  adopting  it,  because  the  participle,  in  this  book, 
frequently  supplies  the  place  of  a  verb.  It  is  no  serious  objection  to 
the  assertion  here,  that  the  same  idea  has  already  been  brought  to  view 
in  V.  6.  The  repetition  of  an  idea,  in  order  to  give  intensity  to  it,  is  too 
frequent  in  this  book  and  elsewdicre  to  need  explanation  or  defence. 
Besides,  it  should  be  noted  that  here  it  is  said,  that  they  are  fidl  of 
eyes  xvxXoi^ev  x«J  t  aco  €  ev,  an  expression  differing  from  that  in  v.  6, 
and  more  explicit.  *  But  why  should  we  suppose  them  to  have  eyes 
f  (Twflf  r,  i.  e.  on  their  bodies  under  the  throne  ?  The  answer  seems  to 
be,  merely  to  complete  the  symbol  of  entire  watchfulness  and  [)erfection 
of  sight  in  every  possible  direction.  Inasmuch  as  y.vy.).6&S9there  evi- 
dently means  the  outer  part  of  the  living  creatures  which  was  prominent 
around  the  throne,  and  tacoO^ev  the  inner  part  under  the  throne,  and 
both  are  filled  with  eyes,  there  was  no  direction  in  which  it  was  possible 
to  move,  that  was  not  provided  for  by  the  powers  of  sight  ascribed  to 
the  ^aa. 

IIow  to  dispose  of  the  six  wings,  (I  mean  as  to  the  mode  in  which 
we  may  conceive  of  them),  seems  less  obvious.  In  Is.  6:  2  and  Ez<,'k. 
1:  5,  it  is  plain  that  the  living  creatures  arc  conceived  of  as  having  hu- 


^ss^ 


116  theophant:  Chap.  IV.  8. 

man  bodies.  In  Isaiah,  one  pair  of  wings  covers  the  face,  in  order  to 
designate  reverential  awe ;  one  pair  covers  the  waist,  for  the  purposes 
of  decorum  ;  and  one  is  employed  in  flying.  In  Ezekiel  we  have  only 
four  wings  (1:  G)  ;  one  pair  of  these  covers  the  waist,  1:  11,  and  the 
other  is  employed  in  flying,  1:  24.  John  differs  from  both  in  one  im- 
portant respect,  viz.  the  bodies,  as  represented  by  him,  are  under  the 
throne  (v.  6),  while  the  anterior  part  stands  out  from  the  throne.  We 
have  seen  that  the  i^ojov,  to  which  is  asci'ibed  the  face  of  a  man,  cannot 
be  supposed,  in  such  circumstances,  to  have  the  body  of  a  man,  because 
this  could  not  be  extended  sG(x>&tv  within  or  underneath  the  throne. 
But  where  shall  jve  place  the  wings  ?  The  writer  has  not  told  us.  Nor 
has  he  disclosed!  ^lis  view  of  jthe  use  to  which  each  of  the  three  pair  of 
wings  was  to  be  put.  T5ut  inasmuch  as  the  bodies  are  not  human,  it  is 
evident  that  the  wings  of  the  waist  are  not  needed  for  the  sake  of  deco- 
rum. Shall  we  say  then,  that  one  pair  is  used  for  covering  the  face, 
(as  in  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel),  while  two  pair  ai'e  employed  in  flying,  thus 
increasing  the  velocity ;  or  shall  Ave  say,  that  the  shoulders  and  each 
pair  of  feet  are  conceived  of  as  having  wings  attached  to  them  ?  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  represented  the  messengers  of  their  gods  as  having 
wings  on  their  feet ;  does  the  prophet  here  intend  that  we  should  form 
a  similar  conception  ?  I  know  not  how  these  questions  can  be  settled. 
The  only  importance  that  can  be  attached  to  them  is,  to  make  out  the 
congruity  of  the  wi'iter's  representation  ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  some  mo- 
ment to  make  out  this,  if  it  can  be  done.  In  either  of  the  ways  sug- 
gested, it  may  be  done ;  and  plainly  Ave  have,  and  can  have,  no  other 
basis  than  the  general  congruity  of  the  representation  on  Avhich  we  can 
build.  The  main  object  is  plain.  Swift  to  do  his  will  explains  the 
leading  idea  attached  to  the  symbol  of  the  wings,  Avhatever  view  may  be 
taken  of  the  manner  in  Avhich  they  are  conceived  of. 

T'llfiovGiv  and  'i^ovoiv,  it  should  be  noted,  are  both  of  the  Pres.  tense. 
If  this  were  a  description  of  mere  actions  or  events,  there  Avould  be  noth- 
ing peculiar  here  ;  for  often,  and  by  almost  all  Avriters,  is  the  Pres.  em- 
ployed for  the  Praet.,  Avhen  it  designates  action.  But  here  quality  or 
attribute  is  described ;  and  in  such  cases  the  Pres.  is  less  frequent ;  but 
still,  Avhere  permanent  attributes  are  described,  it  is  in  place.  The 
third  pers.  plur.  of  these  verbs  is  the  pluralis  rationalis,  common  every- 
where in  Greek. — 'HfAiQag  y.al  vvxzog,  the  Gen.  of  time.  This  is  the 
Hebrew  mode  of  expression  for  designating  the  idea  of  continually,  inces- 
santly.— yliyovzEg,  masc,  and  is  used  as  a  concord  ad  sensum,  the  i^oJa, 
as  to  the  actions  now  attributed  to  them,  being  introduced  as  rational 
beings. 

"Ayiog  X.  r.  h  This  zQiadyiov  evidently  comes  from  Is.  6:  3,  tJiij^ 
uiii;^  dn;^ ;  as  does  also  the  sequel.     The  idea  in  this  case  is  best  ex- 


THEOPhant:  Cuap.  IV.  8.  117 

pressed  by  the  Latin :  Venerande,  vcnerande,  venerande,  Dotnine,  Deus 
omnipotens  !  It  is  not  God  simply  as  pure  or  free  from  sin,  wliieh  is 
meant,  but  God  as  worthy  of  the  adoration  and  praise  of  all  intelligent 
beings.  So  -'"ij^  usually  means,  when  applied  to  God ;  and  so  ayiog, 
often  in  the  New  Testament. 

0  Oeog  is  added,  by  John,  to  the  expression  in  Isaiah,  where  stands 
nixss  n-n"'  simjjly.  John  hjvs  thus  as  it  were  undesignedly  given  a  key 
to  the  Hebrew  expression  just  quoted;  which  has  perplexed  the 
grammarians,  because  T\'r\'^  does  not  take  after  itself  a  construct  state. 
The  phraseology  of  John  shows,  that  in  his  mind^the  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  phrase  just  repeated  is  the  same  as  that  of  nisa::  ^T^^^..  •^j'^?  5 
for  he  has  given  a  translation  of  this,  inasmuch  as  navzo^QazaQ Aq- 
signates  substantially  the  meaning  which  is  conveyed  by  nixaa. — As  to 

0  i^v  X.  T.  h,  see  on  the  same  phrase  in  1:  4.  It  is  merely  another  form 
of  exhibiting  the  most  sublime  appellation  of  the  Godhead.* 

*  In  this  verse  the  imagery  is  similar  in  the  main,  as  we  may  perceive,  to  that 
in  Is.  6:  1 — 3.  Yet  some  things  taken  from  Ezeltiel  are  joined  with  it.  Like 
Isaiah  (6:  2),  John  attributes  six  wings  to  each  lojoj'  ;  but  he  does  not,  like  him, 
appropriate  two  pair  for  purposes  of  decency,  and  only  one  for  flight.  Ezekiel 
(1:  d,  2'^)  gives  only  tine  pair  of  wings  to  his  cherubim,  one  of  which  covered  the 
waist  (J:  11).  The  discrepancy  in  John  is  sufficient  to  show,  that  while  he  drew 
the  material  from  other  sources,  in  the  present  case,  still  he  formed  and  fashioned 
it  after  his  own  model.  The  whole  of  the  symbolical  representation  is  designedly 
such,  as  to  make  a  deep  impression  of  rapidity  of  movement  to  any  part  of  the 
universe  ;  and  thus  it  obviously  designates  the  uhiqtiitij  of  the  Godhead.  God, 
seated  on  his  throne,  is  present  everywhere  in  a  moment  of  time  ;  or,  as  Ezekiel 
most  significantly  expresses  it :  "  The  living  creatures  ran  and  returned,  as  the 
appearance  of  a  flash  of  lightning;"  1:  14. 

Whether  anything  important,  and  how  much,  can  be  educed  from  the  thrice  re- 
peated ayio?  here,  has  been  and  is  still  disputed.  Other  passages  where  mere  in- 
tensity of  feeling  is  expressed  in  this  way,  may  easily  be  adduced  ;  e.  g.  Jer.  "22: 
29.  7:  4.  Ezek.  21:  27.  2  Sam.  18:  33.  Is  the  text  before  us  of  the  same  tenor  .' 
Is  it  like  to  ter  quutcrque  bcatus?  If  it  be  not,  yet  the  other  cases  to  which  ref- 
erence has  been  made  are  so  characteristic  of  Hebrew  idiom,  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  make  out  a  philological  argument  for  anything  more  in  the  present 
case  than  intensity.     The  worship  of  Father,  Son,  and    Spirit,  in   heaven,  is  what 

1  sincerely  believe  in.  Tiie  book  of  Revelation,  in  particular,  is  full  of  declara- 
tions that  the  Saviour  is  worshipped  there.  But  whether  we  can  rest  a  theolog- 
ical argument  for  a  Trinity  in  the  Godhead,  on  the  passage  before  us,  is  a  diifer- 
ent  question.  I  should  not  be  disposed  to  risk  so  important  a  truth,  by  placing  it 
upon  a  basis  that  must  be  somewhat  unstable,  or  at  least  somewhat  uncertain. 

A  few  other  suggestions,  at  the  close  of  this  description  of  the  loj«,  may  not 
be  improper.  We  have  seen  that  Jolin  difil>rs,  in  his  picture,  from  both  his  mod- 
els ;  and  that  the  'iota  here  are  in  some  respects  quite  different  beings  from  those 
in  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  although  in  many  respects  resembling  them.  This  is  good 
evidence,  as  has  been  remarked,  that  the  writer  is  no  mere  copyist — no  slavish 
imitator.  It  is  evidence  also  of  another  thing:,  which  some  may  regard  as  more 
doubtful.     It  shows  that  these   nvr^  or  caiis  and  Cw«  ire  not  designed  to  be 


11^  THEOPHANY  :    ChAP.   IV.  9,"  10. 

(9,  iO)  And  so  often  as  the  living  creatures  give  glory,  and  honour,  and  thanks- 
giving to  liiin  who  sittcth  on  the  throne,  to  him  who  liveth  for  ever  and  ever,  the 
four  and  twenty  elders  fall  down  beibre  him  who  sitteth  on  the  throne,  and  wor- 
ship him  who  liveth  forever  and  ever,  and  cast  down  their  crowns  before  his 
throne,  saying  : 

The  use  of  the  Futures  here,  dcoaovGi  .  .  .  ntaovvzai  .  .  .  nQOoxw^- 
covGi  .  .  .  §alovGi,  has  perplexed  the  grammarians.     Ewald  (Comm.) 

regarded  as  actual  and  veritable  living  beings,  endowed  with  a  particular  form, 
and  constituting  a  real  genus  or  order  of  rational  beings  by  themselves.  Ezekiel 
gives  to  each/owr  faces,  while  he  makes  their  bodies  upright  and  human  ;  and  he 
also  gives  them  but  one  foot.  John  gives  to  the  four  the  faces  respectively  which 
belong  to  one  in  Ezekiel,  and  only  one  face  to  each  ;  he  places  their  bodies  be- 
neath the  throne  and  heads  without ;  and  he  says  nothing  of  their  feet.  Ezekiel 
attributes /oj<r  wings  to  them,  John  six,  and  Isaiah  six.  Ezekiel  occupies  much 
of  his  description  with  the^apparatus  of  the  wheels  that  touch  the  earth,  and  move 
in  harmony  with  the  cherubim.  Of  all  this  John  has  nothing,  and  Isaiah  noth- 
ing. Indeed  the  Seraphim  of  Isaiah  do  not  support  the  throne,  but  stand  around 
it,  and  seem  to  be  quite  different  beings  from  the  cherubim.  John  then  has 
mingled  views  from  both  prophets  with  his  own  ;  and  he  has  thus  made  out  a  de- 
scription different  from  either,  which  preserves  a  medium  between  the  two.  But 
if  Ezekiel's  cherubim  are  to  be  regarded  as  veritable  beings,  like  angels,  then  how 
could  their  natures  alter  so  much  between  his  time  and  that  ol'  John  .'  To  ask 
this  question  is  sufficient  to  show,  that  cherubim  or  ni-^n  and  toja  are  merely 
symbols  or  symbolic  beings,  not  an  actual  order  of  angels  ;  they  are  the  creatures 
of  lofty  and  ardent  imagination,  struggling  for  imagery  to  express  its  conceptions, 
and  not  veritable  existences  like  men  or  angels. 

If  the  reader  is  still  embarrassed  with  the  idea,  that  they  are  represented  as 
leading  in  the  adorations  of  the  heavenly  host,  and  therefore  must  be  really  living 
and  rational  creatures,  he  needs  but  to  recollect,  that  the  heavens,  the  earth,  seas, 
mountains,  hills,  forests,  vapour,  rain,  snow,  hail,  etc.,  are  all  represented  in  the 
Scriptures  as  ■praising  God,  and  that  prosopopcia  is  common  throughout  the 
Bible.  Once  supposing  the  cherubim  or  toja  to  be  animated  beings,  it  is  altogether 
congruous  to  suppose,  as  in  the  case  before  us,  that  they  take  the  lead  m  the  wor- 
ship of  heaven  ;  for  they  are  nearest  of  all  to  God,  and  must  naturally  be  sup- 
posed to  see  most  of  his  glory.  If  doubts  still  remain,  let  the  reader  trace  for 
himself  the  representations  throughout  of  the  cherubim  in  Ezek.  i.  and  x,  and 
tiien  compare  them  with  those  of  John.  The  t'.VTi  of  the  former  are  most  clearly 
the  same  as  the  ima  of  the  latter.  If  now  real,  historical  (fWKtUe-pferjree  is)  exis- 
tences are  designated  by  each,  how  have  they  become  so  changed  between  the 
time  of  Ezekiel  and  that  of  John  .'  The  necessary  result  of  this  question  seems 
to  be  that  they  must  be  merely  symbolic  beings,  modified  by  the  conceptions  of 
different  writers,  as  in  the  case  before  us.  This  admitted,  we  can  account  for  the 
fact  that  cherubim  were  carved  in  the  most  holy  place,  Ex.  37:  6—9.  25;  17 — 20. 
1  Kings  6:  23 — 29.  2  Chron.  5:  7,  8  ;  also  on  the  walls  of  the  temple,  1  Kings  6: 
29.  2  Chron.  3:  10 — 13.  These  were  not  surely  images  of  actual  beings;  for 
among  a  people  always  inclined  to  idolatry,  they  mijfht  thus  have  easily  become 
objects  of  worship;  but  they  were  symbolical  representations  designed  to  teach  the 
ubiquity,  omniscience,  omnipotence,  and  ever  icatchful  providence,  of  the  Godhead. 

As  supporters  of  the  throne  on  which  the  Majesty  of  heaven  is  seated,  they  ap- 


^^A 


theopiiany:  Chat.  IV.  9,  10.  119 

understands  these  Futures  as  used  according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  i.  e. 
so  as  to  denote  what  is  often  repeated ;  here,  liowever,  as  I'ehiting  to 
what  has  been  often  done.  Winer  (Granini.  §  41:  G)  refers  the  Fut. 
to  the  designation  of  what  is  represented  as  frequently  done  in  the  sub- 
sequent course  of  the  vision.  Liicke,  on  the  other  linnd,  regards  it  as 
a  designation  of  a  general  proposition,  so  as  to  mark  lohdt  is  often  and 
customarily  done  in  heaven.  This  last  opinion  seems  i)lainly  to  be  the 
true  one.  One  needs  only  to  refer  to  the  Hebrew,  in  order  to  find  the 
prototype.  Thus  in  Hebrew  the  Fut.  is  often  employed  in  a  manner 
like  to  that  of  the  present  tense,  and  also  very  often  used  in  general 
propositions ;  Ileb.  Cirainni.  §  004.  e.  Gesen,  Ileb.  Lehrgeb.  §  200.  4. 
h.  Ewald  Gramm.  §  473.  2.  c.  This  is  exactly  the  nature  of  the 
Futures  in  the  present  case.  Tliey  mark  customary  action  ;  comp.  the 
same  idiom  in  Luke  1:  37.  Koni.  3:  30,  and  elsewhere.  This  usage  is 
also  classical ;  but  it  seems  specially  to  belong  to  the  Hebrew-(ireek ; 
see  abundance  of  classical  examples  in  Kiihner,  §  440.  2. 

/Joidlxai  Ttfiiiv  y.al  ev/UQiariur,  where  the^^n^^ea;  division  #n  particu- 
lars should  be  noted.  Such  passages  as  Is.  G:  3,  cin,?  'w'n;5  "^'"i""!^  >  ^^^y 
have  aided  in  confirming  such  a  usage.  But  the  number  three  pervades 
the  whole  Apocalypse  ;  see  Vol.  I.  §  7. — Tip  i^cavzi  x.  t.  A.  ='in  Vx, 
only  the  expression  is  here  made  more  intensive  by  adding  sfV  rovg 
ai(ava<i  tdiv  uimvcop. — fltaovvzat  represents  the  attitude  of  entire  pros- 
trotion,  common  in  all  acts  of  high  adoration. — IlQia^vr^Qni,  see  on  v. 
4  above. — [lQoa-/.vvi]Govai  designates  the  homage  paid  to  God  by  the 
act  of  prostration. — ^alovai  .  .  .  rov  {^qovov,  an  expression  which  des- 
ignates the  disclaiming  of  all  honour  or  homage  as  due  to  themselves, 
and  an  acknowledgment  that  all  which  they  have  and  are  is  the  gift  of 
God.  Of  course  it  is  a  striking  expression  of  deep  hmnility,  and  of  the 
highest  reverence. 

pear  in  Ps.  18:  10  (11)  ;  where  in  the  expression  :  "  He  rode  upon  a  clierub,"  the 
word  chtrub  is  used  generically  ;  a  method  of  employing  hinguage  too  frequent 
to  need  an}'  vindication.  Mark  the  congruity  of  imagery  here.  John  gives  thera 
si.\  wings  fur  flight.  Ezekiel  represents  ihem  as  moving  like  a  flash  of  lightning  ; 
tlie  Psalmist  says  :  "  He  rode  upon  a  cherub,  and  did  fly  ;  yea,  he  did  fly  ujjon  the 
winLTs  of  the  wind  ;"  i.  e.  with  great  velocity.  All  is  in  perfect  congruity,  when 
the  passages  are  viewed  in  this  light.  So  in  1  Sam.  4:  4,  C"25-rn  2'i-i%  sitlivg 
entkroncd  ahore\he  Cherubim. 

Once  we  find 'the  same  class  of  beings  employed  as  the  guards  of  paradise,  from 
which  our  first  parents  had  been  e.xpelled.  Gen.  3:  24.  Tiieir  vigilance,  designa- 
ted b\'  their  being  filled  icilU  eyes,  would  seeni  to  indicate  a  nature  appropriate  to 
guardiansiiip.  Whether  the  writer  of  this  passage  adopts  merely  the  popular  no- 
tion of  tiie  cherubim  here,  as  a  basis  fir  representation,  it  would  be  diflicnlt  to 
say.  Elsewhere  we  find  them  connected  only  with  the  throne  of  the  Godhead, 
or  the  place  of  his  immediate  presence  ;  and  this  is  plainly  their  appropriate  sphere. 


120  s'^MHl     THEOPHANY :  Chap.  IV.  11. 


(11)  Thou  art  worthy,  O  Lord,  to  receive  glory  and  honour  and  power;  for 
thou  hast  created  all  things,  and  by  thy  will  they  came  into  existence  and  were 
created.  ' 

The  .tripler  rijv  do^av  '/.at  rriv  rtfiTjv  xa/  r^f  dvvafiiv  again  occurs  as 
before  ;  but  here  with  the  article,  either  because  of  the  repetition  of  the 
ideas,  or  rather,  because  the  idea  of  such  glory  and  honour  and  power 
as  are  appropriate  to  God,  is  meant ;  which  is  expressed  by  the  glory, 
etc.  The  meaning  is,  that  these  belong  exclusively  to  the  Creator  of 
the  world. — z/ta  ro  'OsXriiia  oov,  by  thy  will ;  for  that  8id  with  the  Ace. 
is  not  unfrequently  employed  in  such  an  instrumental  sense,  may  be 
seen  in  Rob.  Lex.  8id,  IT.  Winer's  Gramm.  §  53.  c.  Kuhner's  Gramm. 
§  605  II.  h.  In  such  cases  the  sense  parallelizes  with  that  of  8id  before 
the  Genitive. — ^Haav  (instead  of  the  vulgate  dai),  a  better  reading, 
and  better  supported  than  the  common  one.  The  words  refer  to  the 
original  rise  of  visible  creation. — 'Exn'a&ijaav  merely  explains  and  ren- 
ders more  intensive  the  affirmation. — In  the  use  of  kxriaag  here,  we 
have  an  example  of  the  Aorist  used  for  the  Perfect,  i.  e.  used  to 
designate  completed  action  in  time  past;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  136. 
5.  3.     But  this  is  common  everywhere. 

The  reader  may  find  similar  ascriptions  of  a  striking  character  in 
Enoch  9:  3,  4.  39:  9—12.  60:  9—16.  Ascens.  Is.  7:  15.  8:  17,  18 
(Trinity).  10:  1 — 6.  Glory  to  God  as  the  Creator  of  all  things,  is  fre- 
quent in  the  Scriptures ;  see  Ps.  148:  5.  104:  2.  33:  8,  9  al. 

Thus  concludes  this  magnificent  exordium  to  the  principal  Visions  of 
the  book.  Chap.  v.  is  intimately  connected  with  it,  but  it  is  rather  to 
be  regarded  as  a  special  proem  to  chap,  vi — xi,  than  as  a  proem  to  the 
book  at  large.  The  impressive  nature  of  the  scene  presented  in  chap, 
iv,  cannot  but  strike  the  mind  of  every  intelligent  reader.  The  holy 
Seer  was  duly  prepared,  by  such  an  august  vision,  for  the  disclosures 
which  follow ;  and  the  mind  of  the  reader  can  hardly  fail  to  be  prepar- 
ed, also,  to  look  for  them  with  deep  interest.  It  cannot  escape  even 
the  most  unobserving,  how  greatly  this  whole  scene  resembles  the  in- 
augural theophanies  in  Is.  vi.  and  Ezek.  i.  The  writer  now  forthwith 
rapit  in  medias  res.  But  the  preparation  for  his  development  is  pecu- 
liar, and  therefore  needs  some  general  statement  in  the  way  of  expla- 
nation. 


t 


THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.  V.  1.  121 

CHAPTER  V. 

21ie  sealed  hook. 

Previous  to  the  disclosures  about  to  be  made,  a  book  appears  in  tlie  hand  of 
Him  who  sits  upon  tlie  liirone,  sealed  witii  seven  seals,  so  that  no  one  can  inspect 
its  contents.  The  oounsi-ls  of  heaven  wliicli  arc  as  yet  secret,  are  evidently  sym- 
bolized by  this  sealed  book.  No  one  is  found  in  heaven  or  on  earth,  who  can 
open  and  read  the  book.  The  seer  is  deeply  affected  because  of  this  ;  but  he  is 
encouraged  by  one  of  the  twenty-four  elders  to  e.xpect,  that  the  Messiah  will  dis- 
close its  contents.  As  a  Lamb  tiiat  had  been  slain  the  Messiah  makes  his  appear- 
ance, with  indications  at  the  same  time,  by  the  symbol  of  horns  and  eyes,  of  his 
omnipotence  and  omniscience.  He  advances  to  the  throne,  and  takes  the  book 
from  the  hand  of  him  who  sat  upon  it,  as  the  signal  that  he  is  about  to  open  it 
and  disclose  its  contents.  The  twenty-four  elders  surrounding  the  throne  now 
prostrate  themselves  before  him,  and  offer  unto  him  ascriptions  of  praise  and 
thanksgiving.  With  these  the  angels  and  the  living  creatures  unite  in  a  hymn  of 
praise  ;  which  is  finally  echoed  and  re-echoed  from  the  most  distant  parts  of  the 
universe. 

The  reason  wh}'  a  l/ool;  is  chosen  for  the  symbol  in  this  cnse,  will  be  veixappar- 
ent  to  a  careful  reader  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  In  respect  to  the  book  of  life,  see 
the  remarks  on  Rev.  3:  5.  This  book  has  a  limited  signification,  and  is  employed 
only  in  respect  to  the  state  of  individuals,  whose  weal  or  woe,  life  or  death,  depends 
on  what  is  recorded  therein.  But  in  the  present  case,  the  book  before  us  contains 
a  record  of  the  secret  counsels  of  God,  i^  e.  hitherto  secrel,  in  regard  to  the 
Christian  church  and  its  enemies.  Texls  which  make  use  of  the  like  imagery 
may  be  found  in  Mai.  3:  16.  Ps.  139:  IG,  and  probably  Deut.  32:  34. 

The  seven  seals  put  upon  this  book,  show  that  its  contents  were  not  designed 
to  be  read  by  any,  except  by  him  who  had  authority  and  power  to  break  the  seals. 
So  in  Dan.  S:  26.  12:  4,  'J,  the  prophet  seals  up  what  is  to  be  disclosed  only  at  a 
future  time.  In  Is.  8:  16^  the  prediction  which  had  just  been  written  and  uttered, 
is  required  to  be  "  bound  up  and  sealed,"  that  no  change  may  be  made  in  it. 
But  in  the  case  before  us  the  seiiJs  have  a  different  import,  being  designed  to  ex- 
clude perusal.  The  general  idea  is,  that  none  but  the  Messiah,  v  m>  tv  rc^  y.oX- 
■:ti\)  tov  rrarrjde,  is  capable  of  revealing  the  secret  counsels  of  God.  He  knows 
them  all,  and  therefore  is  able  to  disclose  them. 

The  extent  and  special  design  of  this  sealed  volume  or  book  begin  their  devel- 
opment wiili  chap.  vi. ;  and  there,  consequently,  will  be  the  most  proper  place  for 
y  the  di.scussion  of  the  subjects  ajjpropriate  to  them.  For  the  general  outline  of  the 
plan  of  the  book,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Introduction,  Vol.  1.  §  10. 

(I)  And  I  saw,  upon  the  right  hand  of  him  who  Was  sitting  on  the  throne,  a 
book  written  within  and  upon  the  back,  scaled  with  seven  seals. 

Kai — transitions,  such  as  is  here  made,  and  indeed  even  the  most 
striking  ones,  from  one  scene  to  another,  are  for  the  most  part  marked  in 
thi:^  Vx)ok  merely  by  x«/;  sec  12:  1.  1-2:  18.  14:  1.  15:  I.  17:  1.  10:  11. 
20:  1.  20:  11.  21:  1.  22:  6.  A  natural  solution  of  this  is  found  by 
comparing   it  with  the  Hebrew  idiom,  (as  I  have  before  suggested), 

VOL.  H.  16 


■HE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.  V.  1. 


where  still  greater  transitions  are  made  by  1 ,  viz.,  the  passing  from  one 
book  to  another ;  and  even  independent  books   sometimes   commence 
with  1;  see  Ex.  1:  1.    Lev.  1:  1.  Num.  1:  1.  Josh.  1:  1.    Judg.  1:  I.    1 
Sam.'l:'!.  2  Sam.  1:  1.  1  Kings  1:  1.    2  Kings  1:  1.  Ezek.  1:  1.  Ruth 
1:  1.  Esth.  1:  1.   Ezra  1:  1.  2  Clu-on.  1:  1.     The  assertion  of  even  i-e- 
ccnt   grammarians   and  lexicograf^hers,  that  the  particle  1  always  and 
0-    necessarily  iirf^lies  preceding  matter  with  which  it  is  connected,  is  thus 
,         sliown  to  be  groundless.     In  such  cases  as  the  above,  ^  (=  x«()  must 
'  '^.,  merely  influence  the  meaning  of  the  verb  connected  with  it,  or  at  most 
'^       convey  a  sense  like  to  that  of  our  peculiar  transitive  particle  now,  and 
sometimes  like  to  that  of  the  particle  the7i.     So  in  the  Apocalypse,  y.ai 
then ;  and  so,  indeed,  oftentimes  in  parts  of  historic  narration  in  the 
N.  Testament ;  but  in  the  Apocalypse  the  transitions  marked  by  •/.ca 
are  unusually  great.     Yet,  after  all,  they  do  not  equal  those  of  the  He- 
brew 1 ;  as  the  above  examples  fully  demonstrate. 

'Eni,  on,  upon,  not  properly  in,  althougli  our  idiom  expresses  the  idea 
in  this  way.  It  might  be  rendered  at  or  near,  were  it  not  that  v.  7 
shows  the  book  to  have  been  on  or  in  the  hand,  and  not  simply  at  or 
near  hy  the  right  hand. — Bipuov,  in  form  is  a  diminutive  of  ^ip.og^ 
yet  not  generally  used  in  a  diminutive  sense  in  the  N.  Testament.  The 
diminutive  is  ^q^luot'diov,  Rev.  10:  9.  The  form  of  the  ^I'pJov,  certain- 
ly tlieusual  form,  was  that  of  a  manuscript-roll ;  see  Luke  4:  17,  where 
the  Saviour  is  spoken  of  as  dvamv^ug  to  [if^Xfov,  unrolling  the  book, 
viz.  the  volume  of  Isaiah  the  prophet.  Ewald  objects  to  the  idea  of 
a  scroll  or  7vll  here,  and  maintains  that  there  were  seven  separate  lihelli 
rolled  in  succession  around  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  centre,  the  first  of 
which  was  the  longest,  and  the  rest  successively  shorter ;  so  that  the 
seals  on  the  margin  of  the  outside  leaf  might  be  seen  by  John.  But 
what  significance  then  has  'laai&tv  and  oTtia&f.v  ?  Besides,  there  would 
then  be  seven  ^I'^Xia  instead  of  one.  ^^lainly  the  model  is  to  be  found 
in  Ezek.  2:  9,  10,  where  the  prophets  spealcs  of  "  a  roll  of  a  book  .  .  . 
written  within  and  without,"  i.  e.  on  both  sides  of  the  Ms.,  as  was  usual 
when  there  Avas  a  great  press  of  matter ;  see  Pliny,  De  Veterum  Opis- 
tographis,  Epist.  III.  5.  If  the  writing  on  the  backside  was  discontin- 
ued but  a  short  distance  from  the  outer  extreme  end  of  the  parchment, 
all  the  writing  upon  the  Ms.  would  of  course  be  covered  or  concealed, 
when  it  was  rolled  up. 

KuT sacpQuyiaia'rov  •/..  r.  X.  Sealed  toith  seven  seals  of  course  means 
completely,  entirely,  or  perfectly  sealed  up.  But  here  it  also  means 
somewhat  more.  The  seals  are  disposed  of  in  such  a  way,  that  they 
are  successively  broken,  and  different  parts  of  the  ^t^Jov  disclosed  in 
succession.  Eichhorn  speaks  of  the  seven  seals  as  all  put  upon  the 
outer  edge  of  the  Ms.  when  i-oUed  up.     But  how  then  could  any  part  of 


THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ClTAV.    V.  2,  .'5.  12.'^ 

the  roll  bo  read,  until  the  wliole  were  broken?  To  make  all  pnrl?;  ol" 
the  description  confrnioiir:,  wv  must  suppose  the  roll  to  have  a  .seal  ujion 
the  extreme  end  that  was  last  rolled  up,  which  woidd  of  course  prevent 
its  Vtein^  unrolled.  When  the  first  seal  was  broken,  the  Ms.  coidd  he 
unrolled,  until  one  came  to  a  second  seal ;  and  so  in  successioa'  of  the 
rest.  Now  if  these  seals  were  put  on  so  as  to  be  visible  at  the  ends  of 
the  roll,  (which  niiirht  be  easily  <loiie  by  some  small  label  attached  to 
each  seal  indicative  of  its  place),  then  John  could  have  seen  tljp  seven  ' 
seals,  if  the  end  of  the  roll  was  toward  him,  i.  e.  he  could  have  at  least 
seen  what  indicated  their  presence.  But  how  can  all  the  demands  of 
this  representation  be  answered,  either  by  the  supposition  of  Eichhorn 
or  of  Ewald  ?  If,  however,  we  suppose  the  seals  to  be  put  sriccessiveh/ 
upon  the  margin  of  the  book  or  fCjwH,  as  it  wa^.rolled  up,  each  opening 
would  extend  only  so  far  as  the  o^tt  seal,  where  the  unrolling  would  be 
arrested  ;  and  the  presence  of  these  seals  might  in  some  way  have  been 
indicated  to  a  beholder,  as  has  already  been  suggested. 

* 

(2)  And  I  saw  a  inijlitv  angol,  proclaiinitiir  with  a  loud  voice  :  Who  is  worthy 
to  open  llio  book,  and  to  loose  the  seals  thereol? 

'Jrij^vnnt',  "menira  epitheton  ornans,"  says  Eichhorn.  But  how  it  is 
ornans,  in  the  present  instance,  I  w^  not,  unless  there  is  something 
apposite  in  it  to  the  nature  of  the  case.  Homer  rejn-esents  his  heralds  I 
as  powerful,  robust  men,  in  order  consistently  to  attribute  to  them  deep-  ' 
toned  and  powerful  voices.  .  Is  not  this  the  design  of  the  epithet  tcF/i'poV 
here  ?  The  writer  immediately  subjoins  :  x7]f)vC)(jovra  iv  rpavrj  (AeyuXii. 
The  adjective  ftfyu).)j,  when  applied  to  voice,  must  of  course  mean  loud. 

T(V  uhog  •/..  T.  }..  The  quotation  of  the  words  is  direct,  (as  usual 
elsewhere),  and  the  whole  phrase  forms  the  requisite  complement  to  the 
participle  miovaaovza. — Jlhog  in  the  sense  of  suitable,  tcell  adapted  to, 
or  more  jirobably  with  the  meaning,  of  sufficient  ranh  or  diynity,  i.  e. 
who  by  his  rank  or  attributes  deserves  the  honour  of  opening  this  book 
of  divine  decrees? — Ka)  Xvaai  x.  t.  L  is  added  for  the  sake  of  specifi- 
cation. Seven  seals  had  been  mentionc^d.  Some  special  guard  is  im- 
plied, therefore,  against  the  reading  of  this  book.  It  could  not  be  fully 
read,  unless  they  were  all  successively  broken ;  and  to  this  the  expres- 
sion before  us  refers. 

(3)  And  noione  in  hi^avcn,  nor  on  earth,  nor  under  the  earth,  was  able  to  open 
the  book,  or  to  inspect  it. 

Heaven,  earm^nd  the  i^nder-ioorld,  by  the  common  ^sus  loquendi  of 
the  Hebrews,  denote  the  universe ;  q.  d.  *  no  being  in^TtlC"  universe 
could  be  found,  who  was  able  to  open  the  book,  and  survey  its  contents.' 
Of  course  the  meaning  is,  that  no  one  could  be  found  among  created 
being?,  who  was  competent  to  perform  this  task. — J^voi  is  inserted  after 


124  THE  SEALED  book:    ChAP.    V.  4,  5. 

ovQavco  here  in  several  critical  editions,  but  omitted  by  Hahn.  The 
idea  of"  heaven  among  the  Hebrews  was,  that  it  is  the  region  immedi- 
ately above  the  apparent  welliin  or  sky.  Later  Hebrew  usage  made 
seven  heavens  ;  indeed,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  (cotemporary  with  the 
Apocalypse),  makes  seven ;  but  I  find  no  traces  of  this  in  the  O.  or  N. 
Testament. — 'Tnoy.dzm  r/jg  yrjg,  see  the  popu_lar.idea  of  the  subterra- 
nean region  fully  developed  in  Is.  xiv.  The  blX'^  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  the  ^/idi]g  of  the  Greeks,  both  designate  the  under-world  in  its 
usual  sense,  as  employed  in  popular  language. 

Jivol'iat.  refers  to  breaking  the  seals  of  the  book  ;  pjnmv  to  the  in- 
spection of  its  contents.  BXstzco  is  not  confined  merely  to  the  ocular 
,'  sense,  but  occasionally  is  employed  to  designate  the  mental  one  of  see- 
•  ing  or  considering.  So  Soph.  Oed.  Tyr.  v.  740.  The  first  two  ex- 
amples of  ov8t'  here  are  the  proper  sequences  or  the  previous  negative 
in  ovdei'g  implied  before  iv  rep' ovQctrq)-,  the  ovds  before  ^Imaiv  is  de- 
pendent also  upon  the  first  ovda'g  in  the  verse  ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm. 
§  183.  1. 

(4)  And  I  wept  much,  because  no  one  was  found  worthy  to  open  the  book,  nor 
to  inspect  it. 

IlolXd  neut.  plur.  used  advei'bially,  as  often.  Jt'§iog  in  the  same 
sense  as  above. 

(5)  Then  one  of  the  elders  saith  to  me  :  Weep  not ;  behold  !  the  J'on  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  the  offspring  of  David,  hath  prevailed  to  open  the.booK  and  the 
seals  thereof.  ■ 

Eig  =  inx ,  vphich.  is  sometimes  used,  in  the  later  Hebrew,  as  being 
equivalent  to  Tig,  i.  e.  one,  some  one,  a  certain  one ;  see  Ges.  Lex. — ■ 
AtyH  the  Present  of  narration,  i.  e.  the  historical  Present. — 'EvtxTjcrev 
has  an  intensive  meaning  here.  It  does  not  merely  signify,  that  the 
Messiah  was  able  to  open  the  book,  but  that  he  had  acquired  this  power 
by  a  victorious  struggle.  Comp.  a  similar  sentiment  in  Phil.  2:  6 — 10. 
By  such  a  struggle  with  trials  and  sorrows,  he  had  opened  or  prepared 
the  w'ay  for  the  highest  honour  to  be  bestowed  upon  him,  i,  e.  he  had 
won  by  his  victories  the  honour  and  the  right  to  open  the  sealed  book. 

0  )Ja)p,  the  emblem  of  heros  fortissimus,  inasmuch  as  the  lion  is  the 
king  of  beasts,  in  consequence  of  his  strength  and  invincible  courage  ; 
comp.  Jer.  4:  7.  The  lion  of  God  is  an  epithet  among  the  Arabians, 
for  an  invincible  hero. — '£>c  zijg  (pvXrjg  'lovda,  because  Christ  sprung 
from  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Heb.  7:  14)  ;  and  with  reference,  also,  to  the 
declaration  of  the  dying  Jacob  respecting  Judah,  Gen.  49:  9,  where  lion 
is  used  in  a  sense  like  to  that  which  it  has  in  the  verse  before  us.  That 
Xmv  is  the  subject  of  ivixrjae,  is  proof  that  it  has  the  meaning  just  as- 
signed to  it. — H  Qi^a  Aavi8,  not  root  of  David,  but  a  rpot-shoot  from  the 


THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.    V.  6.  125 


trunk  or  stem  of  David ;  comp.  "^"d"^  r^ica  "lan ,  a  root-shoot  or  sprout 
from  (he  trunk  of  Jesse,  Is.  11:  1,  to  which  the  Clause  before  us  nndoubt-\ 
edly  refers.     How  familiar  the   Old  Testament  Scriptures  were  to  the  \ 
author  of  the  Apocalypse,  must  be  evident  to  every  attentive  reader.    1 
Here  a  plain  reference  to  two  distinct  texts  widely  separated,  is  com- 
prised in  a  very  narrow  compjtss.     See  the  like  image  respecting  the 
Messiah,  in  4  Ezra  12:  31,  32. 

(6)  Antl  1  saw  bi"t\vt>oii  the  tlimnc  and  llio  four  living  creatures,  and  between 
tlip  elders,  a  Lamb  slandinir,  as  it  were  slain,  liaving  seven  heads  and  seven  eyes, 
which  are  the  seven  spirits  of  God  Chat  are  sent  into  all  the  eartii. 

Lit.  iv  ^t'lt^  means  in  the  middle  [space].  Rainly  the  writer  means  to 
say,  in  the  space  between  the  throne  of  God,  borne  up  by  the  four  ^w«,  and 
the  twenty-four  elders  who  sat  in  a  semi-circular  form  around  it;  a 
most  appropriate  station  for  the  jwrformance  of  what  the  sequel  discloses. 
'  The  repetition  of  iv  fitatii  is  a  Hebrew  idiom.  The  Hebrews  in  such  a 
case  often  say:  "pai .  .  .  "j-ia;  see  G^en.  1:  7.  Lev.  27:  12. 

^fnriof,  properly  a  diminutive,  agnellus,   from    «(»/;»',   Gen.    unvog ; 
yet,  like  ^i^h'op  above,  not  employed  in  a  sense  actually  diminutive. 
It  designates,  as  it  were,  a  tender  lamb,  a  young  innocent  lamb,  in  its 
primary  sense ;  and  so  is  used  by  John,  and  applied  to  the   Saviour, 
about  thirty  times  in  the  Apocalypse ;  and,  therefore,  is  to  be  regarded    \ 
as  a  favourite  appellation,  indicative  of  two  things,  viz.  perfect  inno-    I 
cence,  and  pi'opitiatory  sacrifice  or  victim.     Comp.  the  source  of  this  in    I 
the  exclamation  oTTolm  the  Baptist,  John  1:  29,  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of 
God,  who  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the  world !"     It  would  seem  proba- 
I    ble,  that  John  the  evangelist  was  present,  when  this  Avas  said  ;  see  John 
I     1:  35,  3G.     It  is  true  the  word  duvog  is  here  used  ;  but  this  makes  no 
■^gnrecialtle  ilifference.     The  Septuagint  uses  both  uqviov  and  unvo^  for 
the  Hebrew  ii'33;  and  the  evangelist  himself  employs  doviov  in  21:  15. 
So  in  Testamentum  XIL  Patriarcharum  (Fabric.)  I.  p.  724,  725,  730, 
U[nb^  &fnv  is  used  for  the  Messiah.     In  1  Pet.  1:  19.  Acts.  8:  32,  it  is 
used  in  reference  to  the  passage  in  Is.  53:  7.     Otherwise,  the  use  of  it  | 
in  the  New  Testament  is  appropriate  and  peculiar  to  John. 

' £ig  iaq^uyHtvov,  as  slain,  i.  e.  wearing  the  marks,  or  bearing  tlie  ap- 
pearance, of  having  been  slain ;  where  the  propitiatory  design  in  the 
employment  of  the  appellation  lamb  exhibits  itself;  comp.  oig  iaq^ayfis- 
vov,  in  13:  3,  as  to  the  meaning  of  (og  here.  In  what  way  this  appear- 
ance of  having  been  slain  developed  itself,  whether  in  the  apparent 
marks  of  wounds,  or  of  blood,  the  writer  does  not  say ;  nor  is  it  impor- 
tant that  he  should.  Enough,  in  a  description  which  is  altogether  sym- 
holicy  that  he  gives  the  leading  traits,  without  stopping  to  note  the  pDuP^ 
ticular  manner  in  which  tIiGy-wCT6  developed. 


126  THE  SEALED  BOOK:    ChAP.   V.  6.  « VTS?^ 

'Enra  xtQara,  seven  horns,  the  horn  being  the  common  emblem  of 
power  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures;  see  Ps.  112:  9.  75:  10.  89:  17.  148: 
14.  132:  17.  Comp.  also  Dan.  7:  7,  8,  20,  24.  8:  3,  8,  9,  20,  21 ;  and 
see  also  Rev.  13:  1.  That  the  number  seven  here  means  complete,  seems 
obvious,  both  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  and  also  of  the  number.  But 
that  in  itself  the  expression,  seve7i  horns,  would  denote  omnipotence,  seems 
not  to  be  correct,  inasmuch  as  the  beast  in  Rev.  13:  1  has  even  a  still 
greater  number  of  horns  ;  and  so  of  some  of  the  examples  cited  above 
from  the  book  of  Daniel.  The  other  attributes  ascribed  to  the  Lamb 
do  indeed  make  him  Lord  of  all ;  but  the  expression  itself  of  seven  horns 
must  be  regarded  as  simply  designating  the  idea  of  great  power.  This 
also  stands  connected  and  harmonizes  well  with  Xfcov  and  Ivi'xijae  above. 
With  the  measure  of  power  designated  by  seven  horns,  he  might  well  be 
compared  to  a  lion,  and  iviyjjae.  be  reasonably  expected  of  him. 

'OqiOulfiovg  stzzu  of  course  means  acute  and  wide-reaching  vision. 
— Ol  dot  .  .  .  rr/v  ytjv.  Is  the  meaning,  that  these  seven  eyes  are  indi- 
cative of  his  own  attributes  ?  Or  are  they  symbols  of  that  power  which 
he  possesses,  of  sending  abroad  over  all  the  earth  the  seven  spirits  be- 
fore his  throne,  in  order  that  they  may  inspect  and  oversee  the  aifairs  of 
his  kingdom  ?  Thei'e  is  some  difficulty  in  the  present  case  ;  because 
the  seven  horns  seem  plainly  to  denote  the  Messiah's  attribute  of  '^ 
mighty  power.  Yet  in  Rev.  3:  1,  it  seems  to  be  ^ually  plain,  that  the  " 
seven  spirits  are  the  seve7i  presence-angels  ;  for  thei'&-th«^Redeemer  is 
said  i/^Hv,  to  have  or  hold  them  at  his  disposal,  in  the  same  manner  as 
he  has  at  his  disposal  the  seven  stars,  i.  e.  the  angels  of  the  churches. 
Indeed,  in  all  the  instances  brought  under  review,  in  the  remarks  made 
on  3:  1,  the  case  is  the  same,  if  we  except  the  present  one,  which  is  at 
least  somewhat  doubtful.  In  order,  however,  that  congruity  of  repre- 
sentation should  be  preserved,  we  seem  to  be  co^i^strained  here  to  regard 
the  seven  eyes  as  symbols  of  the  all-pervading  survey  or  perspicacity  of 
the  Saviour  himself;  especially  as  we  are  obliged  here  to  acknowledge 
a  reference  to  Zech.  3:  9  and  4:  10,  where  the  seven  eyes,  engraved  up- 
on the  corner-stone  of  the  new  temple,  are  plainly  symbolic  pf ''  the  eyes 
of  Jehovah  which  run  to  and  fro  through  the  wholeeafth,"  i.  e.  God  is 
6  7tot.v6iizijg,  omnituens.  ^^hiinj^'  'tu  aTTEaraXiitva  sig  ndaav  riji)  ytjv, 
is  a  translation  of  the  phrase  in  Zech.  4:  10,  "inxn-bzia  Ci"i^::vr'2  tr^li, 
these  run  to  and  fro  through  the  ivhole  earth.  With  this  passage  before 
us,  which  in  Zech.  is  so  plain,  Ave  cannot  well  withhold  our  assent  to 
the  proposition,  that  the  writer  here  means  to  designate  Christ  as  o 
nuvoJiT^g  or  amnituens  ;  comp.  Rev.  2:  18.* 

*  As  to  the  metlwd  in  which  John  disposed  of  the  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes, 
i.  e.  in  what  manner  or  how  they  were  inserted;  whether  each  eye  was  at  the 


THE  SEALED  book:  Chap.  V.  7.  127 

(7)  And  he  came  and  took  the  book  from  tho  right  liand  of  him  who  sat  upon 
the  throne. 

Simple  aiul  majestic,  without  any  pomp  of  words,  or  any  effort  to  de- 
corate the  scone. — ED.i;rfe,  Perf.  joined  with  an  Aor.  (ij^^fyt)  ;  as  often 
in  narration,  N.  Test.  Granim.  §  13G.  3.  But  here  the  Perf.  has  sim- 
ply an  aoristic  sense,  which  is  very  unusual  ;  see  Gramm.  §  13G.  3.  b. 
jN^ote, 

But  how-  could  a  Lamh  take  the  book  ?  Was  it  only  the  head^  in  this 
case,  which  bore  the  resemblances  to  a  lamb  designated  in  the  sixth 
verse,  the  rest  of  the  person  remaining  simply  human?  This  would 
seem  to  destroy  at  least  the  congruity  of  the  image,  and  to  make  some- 
thing monstrous,  like  Centaurs,  etc.  AVas  the  appearance  of  a  lamb, 
then,  exchanged  for  the  simple  human  form,  when  he  advanced  to  take 
the  book  "^  This  would  at  least  appear  more  probable  than  the  other 
supposition  ;  yet  of  this  the  writer  has  given  us  no  express  intimation.* 

ti 

root  of  eaeh  horn,  and  in  what  order  the  horns  stood  in  relation  to  each  otljer;  of 
all  this  the  author  himself  has  said  nothing;,  and  to  indulge  in  conjecture  with 
confidence  would  be  worse  than  useless.  «s»S^iul»otic  representations  of  this  na- 
ture do  indeed  demand  some  congruilij  and  /ipjiropriatenrss  ;  but  then,  as  the  wri- 
ter goes  designedly  into  the  region  of  imagination  for  images  to  express  his 
thoughts,  we  must  not  limit  him  to  the  mere  realities  of  our  natural  world,  nor 
pronounce  all  that  to  be  incongruous,  which  does  not  agree  with  those  realities  in 
all  its  parts.  The  vtiriJiCHm  we  ma}'  well  admit;  the  »non5^;■osu/«  would  be  an- 
other question.  If  one  is  disposed  to  conjecture,  he  may  suppose  double  horns  in 
the  coufmnn  place  upon  the  sides  of  the  head,  and  three  in  the  centre ;  and  so  of 
the  eyes.  But  it  v;ould  be  useless  to  make  conjectures  of  this  nature,  as  the  sig- 
nificanc}'  of  the  symbols  is  not  in  any  degree  affected  by  them. 

*  Nearly  every  commentary  that  I  have  seen  keeps  a  guarded  silence  in  rela- 
tion to  the  a|)parcnt  difficulty  here.  It  does  not  even  seem  as  if  most  inlerprcteis 
had  once  entertained  the  thought  that  there  was  any  difficulty.  Herder,  Ewald, 
and  Vitringa  are  the  only  critics  whom  1  have  found  ^doing  so  much  as  to  notice 
it.  Of  tiiese  the  former  says  :  "  We  sec  the  images  are  syinbals  ;  and  we  must  not 
unreasonably  dwell  upon  individual  traits,  nor  inquire  (for  example)  :  How  did 
the  Lamb  stand  ?  How  did  he  take  the  book  .'  Where  were  his  eyes  .'  The  im- 
ages of  the  Revelation  have  a  »Hcaw/"/7ff;  and  in  the  connection  of  that  meaning 
must  we  follow  them  ;"  Maran  Atha,  p  54.  Ewald  says  :  "  Non  quaerimus  [de 
loco  oculorum],  imaginum  delineationem  e.xactam  et  congruam  non  esse  scrutan- 
dam  reputantcs;"  p.  14')  Comm.  The  spirit  of  this  remark  he  means  doubtless 
to  apply  also  to  llie  case  before  us.  Vitringarcommences  his  remarks  with  an  ob- 
servation true  enough  :  "  Sicco  pede  pn^si/rt  praeteriunt  hie  Interpretcs  difficul- 
tatem."  He  then  goes  on  to  compare  the  present  case  with  that  of  the  lmo.  in 
chap,  iv,  which,  as  he  avers,  had  eaeii  n  human  tiotiij,  while  only  the  lirad  and  feet  re- 
sembled the  respective  animals  to  which  they  are  compared.  But  in  this  he  is 
surely  mistaken  ;  for  their  bodies  are  represented  as  he]ngvnder  the  throne  ;  which 
could  not  be  said  of  iiutnan  bodies,  as  it  would  imply  a  prostrate  condition.  Be- 
sides, how  are  the/our  feet  of  the  lion  and  the  ox  to  be  joined  to  the  human  body  ? 


128  THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.  V.  8. 

(8)  And  when  he  took  the  book,  the  four  living  creatures  and  the  twenty-four 
elders  fell  down  before  the  Lamb,  each  having  harps  and  golden  bowls  filled  with 
incense,  which  are  the  prayers  of  the  saints. 

■*^  The  acts  of  adoration  and  praise  here  mentioned  are  commenced  by 
those  who  are  nearest  to  the  throne  of  God,  viz.,  by  the  four  living  crea- 

And  in  the  present  case,  how  are  the  four  feet  of  a  lavib  to  be  given  to  him  whose 
body  WHS  human?  This  makes  an  impossible  image.  Vitringa  has  evidently 
confounded  the  representation  of  Ezekiel  with  that  of  John.  In  Ezekiel  the  wri- 
ter attributes  to  the  living  creatures  liands,  1:  8,  and  an  upright  foot  (v.  7),  like  to 
that  of  a  bullock,  so  that  it  could  easily  turn  in  every  direction  ;  and  in  such  a 
case,  beyond  a  doubt  the  body  is  conceived  of  as  upright  and  human.  According- 
ly, we  find  the  living  creatures  standing  under  the  divine  throne,  which  rests  up- 
on their  heads,  Ezek.  1:  22,  26.  Here  nothing  is  unnatural,  save  the  extraordina- 
ry mixed  forms  both  in  the  head  and  feet.  But  in  John  (Rev.  iv.),  the  bodies  are 
placed  under  the  throne;  and  of  course  neither  human  feet  nor  human  bodies  can 
be  supposed  by  the  writer.  In  the  case  before  us,  we  cannot  unite  the  feet  of  a 
lamb  to  a  human  body.  We  must  therefore  suppose  merely  the  head  to  bear  a  re- 
semblance to  the  Lamb ;  or  else  we  must  suppose  the  whole  form  to  be  like  one, 
and  that  arms  were  attached  to  the  sides  or  breast,  (like  the  wings  and  hands  in 
Ezekiel's  vision) ;  or  else  make  the  supposition,  that  the  form  was  changed,  and 
a  human  form  resumed,  when  the  Saviour  advanced  to  take  the  book  and  open  it. 
It  is  not  a  sufficient  justification  of  the  first  of  these  suppositions,  that  there  is  a 
mingling  of  different  forms,  both  in  Ezek.  i.and  Rev.  iv,  in  the  constitution  of  the 
living  creatures  ;  for  these  are  plainly  beings  of  merely  a  symbolic  nature,  and  xl 
TTCtQaSo^ov  may  be  reasonably  allowed.  But  there  would  be  something  repulsive 
to  tastej  in  such  a  mixture  of  forms  here,  where  the  symbol  represents  the  glori- 
ous Redeemer. — Nor  is  the  second  supposition,  (one  which  Vitringa  also  makes), 
adapted  to  reconcile  our  feelings  much  better  than  the  first.  Here  is  still  qu.od.dam 
monstroswn.  Arms  attached  to  a /«r?j6,  are  at  least  a  very  unusual  appendage; 
and  we  cannot  but  feel,  that  there  is  something  unnatural  and  excessive  in  ima- 
gery of  such  a  nature. 

Shall  we  suppose  then,  that  the  Lamb  took  the  book  in  his  mouth,  or  with  his 
feet  P  This  would  be  a  degradation  of  the  whole  representation  :  for  it  is  so  much 
against  the  order  of  nature,  that  we  cannot  help  being  revolted  at  it.  Shall  we 
suppose  then,  that  the  form  under  which  the  Saviour  first  appears  in  the  august 
assembly  of  heaven,  to  the  mental  vision  of  John,  was  changed  when  he  advanced 
to  take  the  book  ?  This  relieves  the  incongruity  of  the  matter,  which  strikes  us 
when  viewed  in  any  other  light ;  and  the  only  difficulty  here  is,  that  the  Seer  has 
himself  given  no  express  notice  of  such  a  change.  But  does  not  what  he  says 
imply  it?  It  would  really  seem  to  be  so,  to  say  the  least.  But  Ewtild  suggests, 
that  tlie  Saviour  bears  this  same  image  of  a  lamb,  in  all  his  subsequent  develop- 
ments, until  he  marches  forth  as  a  conqueror,  at  the  head  of  his  great  army,  Rev. 
19:  11.  The  only  ground,  however,  of  this  opinion  is,  that  the  epithet  aoviov  is 
so  frequently  given  to  him  in  the  Apocalypse.  An  obvious  reason,  in  the  case 
before  us,  for  his  appearance  as  a  lamb,  is  given  in  v.  9,  Thou  wast  slain,  and  hast 
redeemed  us  to  God  by  thy  blood,  etc.  But  surely  when  Christ  appears  at  the  head 
of  his  great  army,  Rev.  14:  1,  although  he  is  called  uqvIov,  it  would  not  seem  to 
be  very  appropriate  to  suppose  that  the  Apocalyptist  saw  him,  on  that  occasion, 
in  the /orm  of  a  lamb.     In  most  of  the  other  cases  where  Christ  is  called /awt&, 


THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.  V.  8.  129 

tures,  who  bear  up  the  throne  ;  then  continued  by  the  twenty-four  el- 
ders, who  stand  near  the  throne. — "Exovteg  fxaazoi,',  each  one  having^ 
where  the  phu-al  Part,  agrees  with  the  singular  t-Miatng  (as  often  else-  ^ 
where),  because  in  its  nature  this  word  is  generic.  vSo  in  lleb.  iiiiN;,  a 
each  one,  more  usually  has  the  plural  joined  wTtTi  it. — But  is  it  the  ^daci 
who  have  harps,  etc.,  or  tlie  twenty-four  elders  ?  The  latter,  in  the  pre- 
sent cai^e,  as  t]yn{)ar,a^  ///<«*  in  v.  9,  seems  clearly  and  necessarily  to  in- 
dicate. 'Eyoiifg,  therefore,  is  to  be  api)lied  only  to  the  neai'est  Nomi- 
native or  subject. 

<Uiu}.ag,  bowls  or  goblets,  having  more  breadth  than  dci)th  ;  to  which 
species  of  vessel  our  word  vial,  as  now  employed,  does  not  at  all  cor- 
i"es{X)nd.  Evidently  a  vessel  with  a  broad  mouth  or  ojiening  is  desig- 
nated ;  tor  the  incense  is  to  be  burned  in  it  for  the  sake  of  diffusing  over 
the  place  the  sweet  odour  which  it  would  yield. — Al  tlaiv  al  TTQCotv^ai 
roiv  uyt'av,  i.  e.  which  incense  symbolizes  the  prayers  of  the  saints  that 
ascend  up  before  God. 

The  object  of  the  harps  (comp.  14:  2.  15:  2)  is  evidently  to  accompOi- 
ny  and  aid  the  song  of  praise.     What  was  symbolized  by  the  incense  in 

there  is  a  simple  reference  to  tlie  name  uot't'oi',  as  applied  witliso  iriuch  significan- 
cy  in  chap.  v. 

After  all,  we  cannot  drtermine  the  case  before  us  with  certainty.  To  my  own 
mind,  the  change  of  form,  so  that  it  would  be  appropriate  to  the  actions  related  in 
the  sequel,  seems  to  be  most  congruous,  and  to  be  attended  with  the  least  difficulty, 
I  mean,  of  course,  with  the  h'asltesthelicaL  difficulty  ;  for  as  to  the  main  senti- 
ment, it  would  not  be  changed  by  either  mode  of  representation  ;  so  that  one  migiit 
be  tempted  to  put  the  consideration  of  it  aside,  and  adopt  the  words  and  sentiments 
of  Herder  and  Ewald.  But  ^[Jler^all,  it  is  not  pleasant  for  the  reader  to  retreat 
from  the  contemplation  of  this  picture,  with  the  feeling  that  there  is  something  of 
the  monstrous,  or  of  tlie  unnatural,  or  of  the  impossible,  ov  at  least  of  the  incongru- 
ous, in  it.  It  makes  us  less  willing  to  listen  to  the  writer,  and  gives  us  less  con- 
tideuce  in  his  taste  and  judgment.  On  this  account,  1  have  endeavoured  to  e'x- 
amine  the  subject  somewIiaT  liiinutcly,  and  not  to  pass  it  sicca  pcde,  a.s  Vitringa 
says  most  have  done.  That  there  is  a  very  impressive  symbol  comprised  in  the 
idea  of  a  slain  /amt,  every  reader  must  instinctively  feel,  when  he  reads  v.  9. 
Indeed,  I  know  not  how  else,  (looking  back  to  the  Jewish  passover-lamb),  the 
writer  could  have  chosen  a  symbol  adapted  to  make  so  deep  an  impression.  Siiall 
we  now  throw  all  this  away,  or  condemn  it  as  in  bad  taste,  merely  because  the  au» 
thor,  in  the  overpowering  vision  of  such  a  scene,  has  not  stopped  to  describe  mi- 
nute particulars,  which  would  enable  us  to  make  out  more  rhetorical  congruityin 
liis  exhibition.'  I  think  this  would  not  be  candid  criticism.  VVliat  hinders 
us,  where  all  is  vision  and  sijiiibol,  from  supposing  such  changes  in  forms  profl'er- 
ed  to  vision,  as  the  nature  of  the  case  respectively  demands  .'  If  we  may  do  so 
witiiout  any  violence  or  impropriety,  (and  why  may  we  not.')  then  may  we  sup- 
pose, tliat  when  a  book  is  represented  as  being  laken  and  read,  this  is  and  must  of 
course  be  done  by  an  appropriate  human  form,  and  not  by  that  of  a  lamb,  at  least 
of  a  lamb  as  understood  to  mean  (in  respect  even  to  form)  what  the  liltrul  sense 
of  this  word  conveys. 

VOL.  II.  17 


130  THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.  V.  8. 

the  temple  of  old,  seems  to  be  plainly  brought  to  view  here.  As  the 
perfume  yielded  by  incense,  when  burned,  diiiuses  a  sweet  odour  over 
all  the  place  where  it  is  offered,  and  ascends  upward  towards  heaven ; 
so  prayer,  when  directed  to  God,  ascends  upwards,  and  when  sincerely 
offered  is  well-pleasing  to  Him  to  whom  it  is  directed.  So  Ps.  141:  2, 
" Let  my  prayer  come  before  thee  as  incense"  The  passage  before 
us  is  the  only  one,  where  the  redeemed  themselves  in  heaven  ai'e  repre- 
sented as  offering  the  incense  which  is  the  symbol  of  the  prayers 
of  the  saints.  And  here,  it  would  seem  that  the  incense  is  not  to  be  regard- 
ed as  a  symbol  of  the  prayers  oflPered  by  the  saints  on  earth  ;  as  some 
have  maintained.  Ewald  understands  it  as  a  symbol  of  the  prayers  of  the 
offerers  themselves;  just  as  the  harps  are  a  symbol  of  the  praises  of  those 
who  employed  them.  So  Yitringa.  And  as  to  aylav,  it  may,  without 
any  difficulty,  be  as  well  applied  to  saints  in  heaven  as  on  earth ;  it  is 
even  more  appropriate  to  them. 

In  Rev.  8:  3,  4,  is  a  passage  which  represents  an  angel  as  having  a 
golden  censer  filled  with  incense,  and  as  offering  up  this  before  God 
"  with  the  prayers  of  all  the  saints."  This,  as  I  apprehend,  has  plainly 
a  different  meaning,  in  some  respects,  from  the  clause  now  before  us,  in- 
asmuch as  it  represents  him  as  an  intercedinf]  angel,  presenting,  in  be- 
half of  the  persecuted  church  on  earth,  their  supplications  before  God. 
4^t  all  events,  the  idea  oi  ckngel-intercessors,  in  the  sense  now  stated,  was 
a  common  one  among  the  Jews,  at  the  time  when  the  Apocalypse  was 
written.  For  the  full  exhibition  and  proof  of  this,  I  must  refer  the  rea- 
der to  Exc.  I.  under  the  head  Good  Angels,  No.  6. 

Li  the  present  case,  then,  as  the  harps  are  an  emblem  of  the  praise 
which  those  who  employed  them  offered  to  God,  so  the  howls  filled  with 
incense  are  an  emblem  of  the  prayers  which  were  offered  up  to  God  in 
behalf  of  his  church  and  kingdom,  in  the  temple  above.  On  earth  the 
priests  in  the  temple  always  took  the  lead  in  worship ;  the  people  at  a 
distance  from  the  most  holy  place  followed  on,  in  obedience  to  the  sig- 
nal which  was  given  them.  The  offering  of  incense  was  a  signal  for 
prayer;  see  Luke  1:  10,  which  is  direct  to  this  point.  So  in  the  pres- 
ent case.  The  L,wa  and  the  elders  begin  the  adoration  ;  the  angels  at  a 
greater  distance  echo  it,  vs.  11,  12  ;  all  the  distant  parts  of  the  universe 
(or  perhaps  the  angels  who  preside  over  them),  re-echo  it,  v.  13 ;  so 
that  there  is  one  general,  or  rather  universal,  chorus  on  this  occasion — 
a  chorus  of  all  inteUigent  and  holy  beings. 

Such  being  the  simple  and  (^^may  add)  magnificent  view  of  the  wri- 
ter, it  seems  to  be  unnecessary  here  to  be  solicitous  about  minute  de- 
tails ;  such  as,  '  How  could  they  play  on  harps,  which  I'equire  the  use  of 
hoth  hands,  while  in  one  hand  they  held  the  bowls  of  incense  ?  How 
could  they  play  on  harps,  burn  incense,  sing,  and  pray,  all  at  the  same 


w 


THE    SKALF.1>  BOOK  :    ClIAP.  V.  9,  10.  1^ 

time  ?'  We  might  answor,  imlocd,  thiit  the  writer  does  not  allinn,  nor 
even  intimate  tliis.  Thi  y  could,  at  all  events,  sing  and  play  at  one  time ; 
as  the  worshipi)orj;  in  the  temple  did  on  earth.  They  could  offer  pray- 
ers and  burn  inconse  at  another  ;  a.s  was  done  in  the  temple  on  earth. 
And  this  is  all  the  writer  means,  and  all  Avhich  he  expects  his  readers  to 
understand.  But  after  all,  it  is  no  very  difficult  thing  to  suppose  all  these 
to  be  done  at  one  and  the  same  time.  The  incense-bowls  are  placed, 
when  ignited,  on  tlie  altar  of  incense;  the  harps  accompany  the  hymns, 
and  the  hymns  are  themselves  (as  hymns  often  are)  in  part  supplica- 
tions  to  God,  as  well  as  praise.  As  the  redeemed  in  heaven  are  kings 
and  priests  to  God,  the  offering  of  incense  is  surely  an  appropriate  duty. 
The  writer,  therefore,  has  offended  neither  against  good  taste,  nor  the 
Ijnvsofcongruity  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  has  given  us  a  truly  magnifi- 
cent picture  of  what  he  means  to  describe. 

If  any  one  is  still  disposed  to  ask  :  Whether  prayer  in  heaven  is  an 
appropriate  exercise  ?  The  answer  is  easy.  He  may  be  ix'ferred  to 
Kev.  fi:  10.  Why  should  the  blessed  before  the  throne  of  glory,  cease 
to  feel  as  deep,  yea  even  a  deeper,  interest  than  formerly  in  the  prosperi- 
ty of  the  church  ? 

(0,  10)  And  they  sing  a  new  song,  saying:  Thou  art  worthy  to  take  the  book, 
and  to  open  the  seals  thereof;  for  thou  wast  slain  and  hast  redeemed  us  to  God 
by  thy  blood,  out  of  every  tribe  and  tongue  and  people  and  nation,  and  hast  made 
them  kings  and  priests  to  our  God,  and  they  shall  reign  over  the  earth. 

^iiSovaiv,  they  sinfj,  Prcs.  for  the  Aor.  of  narration,  or  the  historic 
Present. — ia8r,v  y.uin'/r,  a  new  song  ;  not  with  Schleusner  and  olTTei's, 
an  excellent  song.  All  the  songs  of  heaven  we  may  well  suppose  to  be 
excellent.  But  a  new  song  is  such  an  one  as  a  new  occasion  of  praise 
and  thanksgiving  calls  forth;  comp.  Ps.  33:  3.  40:  3.  96:  1.  98:  1.  144: 
9.  149:  1.  Is.  42:  10.  Thou  art  worthy  to  take  the  hook,  etc.,  shows  the 
gi'ound  of  the  neioness  of  the  song.  It  wtis  appropriate  to  a  neio  occa- 
sion. Whatever  may  be  done  by  imperfect  worshippers  on  earth,  in 
heaven,  it  would  seem,  their  worship  is  not  uniform  in  matter  or  man- 
ner. New  occasions  call  forth  new  songs,  and  doubtless  7iew  supplica- 
tions also. 

"On  i(T(fdyr^g,  from  g^kogo}  (old  root  G(fdyay),  in  the  2  Aor.  passive. 
Comp.  as  to  the  sense  of  the  word,  (6g  iaqiayfisvov  in  v.  6:  The  refer- 
ence is  to  the  paschal  lamb,  which  was  slain  at  the  feast  of  the  passover, 
and  its  blood  sprinkled  on  the  door  posts,  that  the  destroying  angel 
might  pass  by,  Ex.  xii ;  comp.  1  Cor.  5:  7.  As  the  sacrifice  of  the 
first  paschal  lamb  procured  redemption  or  deliverance  from  the  plague 
which  smote  and  destroyed  the  Egyptians,  so  did  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Lamb  of  God  jirocure  eternal  redemption  for  his  people,  or  "  take 
away  the  sins  of  the  world." — ^yo()ui^(o,  to  buy,  purchase,  means  also  to 


132  THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.    V.  9,  10. 

ransom  or  redeem,  because,  for  example,  slaves  were  ransomed  from  J|^ 
bondage,  and  the  condemned  from  execution,  by  the  payment  of  a 
price  which  was  accepted  in  lieu  of  their  bondage  or  punishment.  So 
here ;  the  slaves  of  sin  and  Satan,  those  who  lay  under  the  sentence  of 
the  divine  law  and  were  condemned  to  the  second  death,  were  bought 
off  or  redeemed  by  the  blood  of  Christ,  in  order  that  they  should  be  the 
freed-men  of  the  Lord,  1  Cor.  7:  22,  23.  Comp.  also  1  Cor.  6:  20. 
2  Pet.  2: 1.  Rev.  14:  3,  4.  The  metaphor  is  easy  and  obvious.  It  is 
fully  developed  in  1  Pet.  1:  18,  19,  "  Ye  know  that  ye  were  not  re- 
deemed with  corruptible  things,  as  silver  and  gold,  .  .  .  but  Avith  the 
precious  blood  of  Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  without  blemish  or  without  spot." 

T(p  ■O'Hp,  Dat.  commodi,  as  the  gi'ammarians  say,  i.  e.  bought /or  Mm,  . 
on  his  account,  that  he  might  possess  us  as  his  freed-men  and  obedient  \ 
children. — 'Er  roj  ai(iari  gov,  by  thy  blood ;  not,  then,  simply  because  ', 
he  had  instructed  them,  or  been  the  light  of  the  world ;  not  merely  be- 
cause he  had  set  them  a  perfect  example,  and  urged  them  to  walk  in 
his  steps  ;  not  merely  because  he  had  sealed  the  truths  which  he  had 
taught,  by  a  martyr's  death  ;  all  these  might  indeed  belong  to  the 
of  action  in  which,  as  the  Redeemer  of  our  race,  the  Lord  Jesus 
move.  They  did  belong  to  it ;  and  they  are  delightful  truths,  and  of 
deep  interest.  But  there  is  a  truth  Avhich  ranks  still  higher ;  and  this 
is,  that  Christ  was  our  passover-sacrijice ;  our  propitiatory  offering ; 
and  thus,  that  "  Lamb  of  God  which  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the  world." 
It  is  not  merely  the  light  which  he  diffused,  nor  his  example,  nor  his 
martyrdom  as  a  faithful  witness — but  his  Blood  which  redeems  our 
lost  race  from  their  bondage  and  their  perishing  state,  and  makes  them 
free  and  "  alive  to  God."  Let  the  reader  carefully  compare  with  the 
sentiment  here,  Matt.  26:28.  20:28.  John  10:  11.  Eph.  1:  7.  Acts 
20:  28.  Col.  1:  14.  Heb.  9:  11—14.  1  Pet.  1:  18,  19.  Gal.  3:  13. 
1  John  1:  7.  Is.  53:  5 — 10  ;  which,  however,  are  only  a  few  of  the  nu- 
merous texts  of  the  like  import.  If  there  be  any  such  thing  as  a  cen- 
tral point  to  Christianity  considered  as  a  religion  distinct  from  all  oth- 
ers, it  seems  to  be  the  doctrine  here  brought  to  view  by  our  text.  No 
wonder  that  it  should  call  forth  the  rapturous  praise  and  adoration  of  all 
the  heavenly  world,  when  the  Lord  of  glory  presented  himself  in  a  form 
which  was  an  emblem  of  the  atoning  sacrifice  which  he  had  made,  and 
made  as  the  Redeemer  of  our  perishing  race  ! 

fbvlt]  means  tribe,  i.  e.  a  .^comparatively  small  division  or  class  of 
people  associated  together;  e.^'g^-^e  tribes  of  Israel. — rXooaoa,  lit. 
tongue,  dialect,  i.  e.  the  peculiar  dialect  of  a  small  part  of  a  numerous 
people  ;  and  so  it  marks  a  division  or  national  distinction  here  rising 
somewhat  above  that  designated  by  (fvl^.  This  usage  is  of  Hebrew 
origin ;  Is.  66:  18.    Dan.  3:  4,  7.  4:  1.   7:  14. — yiaog,  populus,  spoken 


THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.    V,  9,   10.  18S 

of  a  multitude  en  masse,  who  are  associated  together  as  a  nation,  an 
army,  etc.,  in  distinction  from  Sijfiog,  the  people  as  freemen  assembled  in 
the  forum,  etc.  Here  it  designates  a  larger  mass  of  people  than  is  sig- 
nified by  the  preceding  words. — "Exfrog,  tlie  people  in  a  still  wider  ex- 
tent, a  large  nation.  In  Ilebrev^^  nr  usually  means  the  Hebrew  nation^ 
and  "^'J  or  C"^"5  the  Gentile  nations.  The  four  words  conjoined  here  p^ 
designate  nations  of  every  kind,  from  the  smallest  to  the  greatest;  and 
^f  course  imply  that  redemption  has  been  extended  to  Gentile  as  well 
a>  Jl^w.  "  ' 

K(ti  fTToiijGag  y.  t.  X.,  see  on  1:  G. — Kal  ^aaiXemovatv  im  rFjg  yije. 
Who  shall  reign  ?  Answer :  The  redeemed  of  every  tribe,  etc.  How 
shall  they  reign  ?  The  answer  is  not  given  here  ;  but  it  is  implied  in 
Rev.  11:  17.  20:  -i— G.  Comp.  2:  26,  27.  3:  21.  1  Cor.  6:  2,  3.  Matt. 
19:  28.  Is  it  a  visible  reign  on  earth,  i.  e.  a  reign  of  those  who  them- 
selves dwell  on  the  earth ;  or  is  it  a  participation  in  the  glories  and  ex- 
altation of  the  Redeemer,  when  his  kingdom  shall  become  universal? 
Probably  the  latter  ;  see  on  Rev.  20:  4 — 6. 

One  difficulty  still  remains.  In  v.  9  we  have  r^yoQaaag  .  .  .  ri(idg,  us, 
first  pers.  plural ;  in  v.  10  we  have  (according  to  the  corrected  text), 
xai  iTToiijaug  avznvg,  them,  third  pers.  2)lural :  and  so  again,  ^aailfvaov- 
air,  third  pers.  plural.  The  ^dgate  text  reads  /)(<«*  for  avrnvg,  and 
^aailti'Ofitv  for  ^aa(levaovoiv,\^m&  preserving  the  first  pers.  plural 
throughout.  But  the  weight  of  authority  seems  to  be  against  this  ;  and 
it  is  rejected  in  th6  late  critical  editions.  Thus  constituted,  there  ap- 
pears to  be  a  serious  discrepancy  between  v.  9  and  v.  10,  scarcely  con- 
sistent with  the  supposition  that  the  same  speakers  utter  both.  Ewald, 
being  unable  to  solve  the  difficulty,  proposes  to  expunge  the  imag  of  v. 
9,  and  to  read :  iiyonaaag  .  .  .  ix  naaiig  qvUjg  x.  r.  X.,  i.  e.  thou  haAt . 
redeemed  .  .  .  [some]  of  every  tribe,  etc.  This  is  not  an  impossible 
sense ;  for  ix  (like  "("3  of  the  Hebrews)  is  frequently  used  in  such  a  way 
in  the  N.  Testament,  see  Lex.  ix,  3.  h.  But  still,  as  there  is  no  au- 
thority thus  to  change  the  text,  it  is  better  to  choose  some  other  method, 
if  we  may  do  so,  of  solving  the  difficulty.  The  ijiidg  of  v.  9  evidently 
includes  all  Christians,  at  least  all  in  heaven  ;  for  the  twenty-four 
elders,  and  only  they,  could  not  surely  belong  to  every  tribe  and  tongue. 
If  the  text  then,  as  it  now  stands,  be  correct,  we  must  suppose  that  the 
first  person  plural  is  dropped  at  the  end  of  v.  9,  and  that  avrovg  in  v. 
10  is  referred  by  the  speakers  to  qv/Sjg,  y).(aaar,g,  x.  t.  ).. ;  i.  e.  thou 
hast  made  every  tribe,  etc.,  to  be  kings  and  priests.  Of  course  the 
meaning  must  be  limited  to  such  as  were,  or  were  to  be,  actually  re- 
deemed ;  we  must  not  apply  it  numerically  to  every  individual  of  each 
tribe.  The  sentiment  then  is,  that  Cliristians  of  all  nations  shall  yet 
reign  on  the  earth  or  over  the  earth ;  a  sentiment  like  to  that  in  other 
passages  referred  to  above. 


134  THE   SEALED  BOOK:    ChAP.    V.  11,  12.       *, 

There  is  still  another  method  of  solving  the  ditRculties  of  the  amend- 
ed text,  which  I  have  not  found  in  any  of  the  commentaries.  It  is  that 
of  responsive  praise.  In  Ps.  xxiv.  there  is  a  plain  example  of  the  like 
composition  ;  so  also  in  Is.  6:  1 — 3.  If  now  in  the  present  case  we  sup- 
pose the  first  clause  in  v.  9 — "  Thou  art  worthy  to  take  the  book,  and 
to  open  the  seals  thereof" — to  be  sung  by  both  the  ;ca«  and  the  elders ; 
then  the  following  clause,  to  the  end  of  v.  9,  by  the  elders  alone ;  then 
V.  10  by  the  'Q(au  again  as  a  response  ;  in  this  way  all  difficulty  vanishes. 
I  do  not  aver  that  such  was  the  intention  of  the  writer ;  but  surely  there 
is  nothing  improbable  in  it,  either  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  or  when 
compared  with  other  examples.  Besides  ;  in  v.  11,  there  is  an^ho  of 
the  praise  begun ;  and  in  v.  13  this  is  •reechoed  again  by  a  still  greater 
multitude.  There  is  no^ritical  heresy,  'tliej:*jfore,  in  such  a  view  of  the 
case;  although  I  have  noSerious -difficulty  with  the  preceding  solution. 

(11)  And  I  looke^f-ftnd  I  heard  the  voice  of  many  angels  round  about  the 
throne,  and  of  the  living  creatures,  and  of  the  elders ;  and  their  number  was  ten 
thousand  times  ten  thousand,  and  thousands  of  thousands; 

Kv/J.o}  Tov  ■d-Qovov.  Plainly  the  intention  of  the  writer  is,  that  we 
should  regard  the  great  multitude  of  angels,  as  standing  around  the  throne 
in  a  circle  external  to  that  of  the  twenty-four  elders ;  who  are  also  said 
to  sit  round  the  throne,  4:  4.  The  redeemed,  then,  who  are  comprehend- 
ed with  the  twenty-four  elders,  (for  these  are  the  leaders  or  representa- 
tives of  the  redeemed),  stand  next  to  the  presence-angels  ;  and  the  many 
angels  are  ranged  beyond  these,  i.  e.  in  the  outer  circle.  Can  any  mj- 
co/i^na^y  be  objected  to  this  view  of  the  writer?  I  think  not.  "Are 
they  [the  angels]  not  ministering  spirits,  sent  forth  to  minister  to  the 
heirs  of  salvation  ?  Heb.  1:  14.  "  Know  ye  not  that  we  shall  judge  an- 
gels ?"  1  Cor.  6:  3.  For  angels  no  redeeming  blood  has  been  shed, 
Heb.  2:  IG,  17.  Why  then  may  we  not  rationally  suppose  that  the  re- 
deemed will  enjoy  a  high  preeminence,  since  they  have  been  ransomed 
at  such  an  infinite  expense  ? 

As  to  the  number  of  the  angels  here,  it  is  plainly  taken  from  Dan.  7: 
10,  "  Thousand  thousands  ministered  to  him,  and  ten  thousand  times 
ten  thousand  stood  before  him."  But  in  our  text,  the  order  of  the  num- 
bers" is  reversed.  It  is  plain  enough  that  these  numbers  are  thus  re- 
peated, in  order  to  designate  the  idea  of  countless  number,  or  at  least  of 
an  exceedingly  great  one.  The  general  chorus  that  follows,  is  contained 
in  the  next  verse.  "  ~-~ '  ' 

(12)  Saying  with  a  loud  voice  :  Worthy  is  the  Lamb  that  was  slain,  to  receive 
power,  and  riches,  and  wisdom,  and  might,  and  honour,  and  glory,  and  blessing. 

Aiyrtvti.q  agrees  with  o  dQC&f/og  a  noun  of  multitude,  or  with  i/vQid- 
dsg  and  )(^iXiddEg  by  a  constructio  ad  sensum  as  to  gender. — Aa^tlv  ti]v 


THE  SEALED  BOOK  :    ChAP.    V.  12.  I8f 

dvruiiiv  X.  r.  X.  Ts  the  meaning,  that  he  is  worthy  of  having  all  these 
virtues  and  gifts  bestotced  upon  him  ?  Or  is  it,  that  he  is  worthy  of  be- 
ing praised  as  possessing  them,  or  worthy  of  having  them  ascribed  to 
him  by  all  intelligent  and  rational  beings  ?  Doubtless  the  latter  ;  for 
already  did  he  possess  the  attributes  named.  As  possessing  them,  he  is 
the  object  of  adoration  and  i)raise. — W.ovzov  means,  that  the  abundance 
of  all  tilings  is  in  his  possession  and  at  his  disposal. — /1vpu(aiv  here  de- 
signates his  official  power  or  authority. — 2^ocpiav,  his  power  to  discern 
the  best  ends,  an<l  to  choose  the  best  means  in  order  to  accomplish  them. 
— Jayvp,  his  ability  to  accomplish  all  which  he  nndertakes. — Tiftijv  '/.at 
dol^ay  xai  tvloyiav  are  not  qualities  or  attributes  of  the  Messiah,  but 
stand  connected  more  properly  with  Xa^aiv  in  its  ordinary  sense.  The 
meaning  is,  that  Christ  is  woilhy  to  receive  honour,  and  glory  or  praise, 
and  blessing,  as  ascribed  to  him  and  protlered  to  him  by  his  creatures. 
The  offering  of  such  an  ascription  to  the  Redeemer,  (the  particulars 
of  which  constitute  the  perfect  number  seven),  is  an  expression  of  the 
highest  adoration  which  language  can  designate.  Well  does  Ewald  say  : 
"  Angelorum  .  .  .  conclamatio,  augustam  et  vere  dicinani  Messiae  tanti 
numinis  majestatem  pi'aeconiis  justis  prosequens."  And  again :  "  In 
doxologia  (v.  12),  Messias  divinarum  virtutum  et  laudum  decore  dig- 
nissimus  pracdicatur."  Eichhorn,  in  reference  to  the  passage  before  us, 
says :  '*  Excurrit  in  laudes  Messiae,  divisam  cum  Deo  majestatem  et 
imperium  habentis."*  ^^ — -'^  ^ 

*  Eichhorn,  and  also  his  follower  and  imitator,  Heinrichs,  both  attribute  the 
number  seven  here,  i.  e.  the  seven  predicates  which  belong  to  the  Lamb,  to  the 
Jewish  Cabbala  respecting  the  Sephiroth.  I  cannot  admit  this  as  probable;  (1) 
Because  there  is  no  proof  whatever,  and  indeed  no  probability,  that^the  Qabba^^ 
lists  are  of  as  ancient  origin  as  the  Christian  era.  {2)  Even  if  they  were,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Sephiroth  does  not  well  apply  here.  They  were  ten  in  number; 
and  although  it  is  alleged,  that  these  were  subdivided  into  seven  and  three,  yet 
this  classification  does  not  subserve  our  present  mirpose.^  Tiie  superior  Sephiroth 
were  the  eternal,  the  crown,  and  r'J^rn  or  n;'2  i.  eTTTtTlffa;  the  inferior  were  vii<flitf 
majcstij,  etc.  Eichhorn  says  that  God  was  praised  in  two  ways,  either  by  a  tiiid 
or  a  hcptadc  of  attributes  being  ascribed  to  him.  By  a  triad ;  e.  g.  "  Thine  is  the 
kingdom,  and  power,  and  glory,"  Matt.  C:  13,  [if  this  be  not  genuine,  it  is  at  least 
ancienf^ ;  and  so  (he  might  have  added),  in  Is.  G:  3,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy  ;"  Rev.  4: 
11,  "  Glory,  and  honour,  and  power;"  Rev.  4:  8,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy ;  Lord,  God, 
Almighty  ;  which  was,  and  is,  and  is  to  come,"  (where  we  have  three  times 
threejj^  Rev.  4:  9,  "  Glory, honour,  and  thanksgiving."  By  a  heptade  ;  e.  g.  Rev. 
7:  12,  where  we  have  the  same  doxology  as  in  the  text  before  us,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  order  of  tiio  words  dilftrs,  and  tiial  7T?.ovtos  in  the  text  before  us  is 
omitted  there,  and  tvynfjiarta  substituted  in  its  place.  So,  again,  in  1  Ciiron.  2!): 
11,  12,  it  is  said  that  even  a  drrude.  is  found,  corresponding  to  the  whole  number 
of  the  Sephiroth,  and  siii)divided  into  seven  and  three.  But  whoi  vir  will  care- 
fully examine  that  passage,  will  find  no  decade,  nor  even  lieptade,  but  merely  ir- 
regular OTQvcfOt,  first  of  five  simple  members,  then  of  three  composite  ones,  then 


^ 


k 


136  THE  SEALED  BOOK  :  ChAP.  V.  13. 

(13)  And  every  creature  which  is  in  heaven,  and  on  earth,  and  under  the  earth, 
and  those  which  are  in  the  sea,  even  all  which  are  in  them,  heard  I  saying:  To 
Him  who  sitteth  on  the  throne,  and  to  the  Lamb,  be  blessing  and  honour,  and 
glory  and  power,  for  ever  and  ever. 

Kjiafid,  lit.  created  things  ;  but  nouns  in  -jwa  are  very  common  in  the 
N.  Testament,  and  not  unfrequently  resemble,  in  meaning,  those  formed 
in  -Gig.  The  neuter  gender  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  persons  or 
agents;  e.  g.  in  John  17:  2,  21.  2  Thess.  2:  6.  1  Cor.  1:  27,  28.  Heb. 
7:  7.  1  John  5:  4  al. ;  see  N.  Test,  Gramm.  §  95.  3.  Here,  ]3lamlj,x 
intelligent  agents  are  designated;  for  this  the  nature  of  the  case  de- 
mands. 

'Em  Tijg  "O-aldoayg,  on  or  in  the  sea  ?  The  answer  depends  on  the 
meaning  of  xTiafxa.  If  this  word  here  designates  angels,  who  pre- 
side over  the  elements,  (e.  g.  in  the  text — i  n  \  t/jg  ytjg  .  .  .  in i  rTJg 
d-aluaarjg),  then  on  or  over  is  the  proper  translation.  We  might  so 
render  the  particle  im  here,  in  both  cases ;  but  it  must  be  with  some 
doubt,  whether  we  should  be  in  the  right.  In  Eisenmenger's  Juden- 
thum  Entdeckt.  I.  p.  805  seq.  and  II.  p.  374  seq.,  the  reader  may  find 
the  Jewish  notions  respecting  angels,  as  sent  into  all  the  different  parts 

three  of  a  mixed  nature,  and  then  two  couplets,  the  one  simple  and  the  other 
composite.  All  this  supposed  evidence  ^then  of  Cabbalism  for  centuries  before 
the  Apocalypse  was  written,  appears  to  be^withoutTilny  real  support,  and  belongs 
only  to  the  conceptions  of  those  who  make  such  allegations  as  we  have  now  ex- 
amined. 

But  supposing  Cabbalism  to  have  existed  at  the  time  when  the  Apocalypse  was 
written,  yet  there  is  internal  evidence  in  the  case  before  us,  that  the  writer  has 
not  made  his  -agpeal  to  it.  Instead  of  selecting  exclusively  either  the  superior 
Sephiroth  (three),  or  the  inferior  (seven),  he  has  taken  some  of  both.  Thus  his 
ao(pi'a  belongs  to  the  superior  order  of  Sephiroth.  All  of  Eichhorn's  imagination, 
then,  that  John  chose  the  seven  inferior  Sephiroth,  as  appropriate  to  a  &iug  Ssv- 
ze^oe,  appears  to  be  ungrounded  ;  for  he  has  made  no  such  choice.  And  even  if 
he  had,  what  proof  of  a  ^tug  Su'vtQog  could  result  from  such  a  doxology,  in  the 
present  case,  when  the  same  doxology  (one  word  only  excepted)  is  ascribed  ry 
&iM  in  Rev.  7:  ]2?  not  to  speak  of  the  passage  in  1  Chron.  2'J:  11,  12,  which  ex- 
hibits for  substance  the  same  particular  predicates.  Could  John,  as  a  oiMulizing 
Jew,  have  thus  confounded  superior  and  inferior  Sei)hiroth,  and  thus  made  a  mix- 
ture revolting  to  the  feelings  of  all  Cabbalists  .'  This,  to  say  the  least,  seems  to  be 
very  improbable.  Indeed  the  very  face  of  the  matter  voUches  for  the  fact,  that 
John  had  no  concern  with  Cabbalism,  in  the  passage  before  us.  It  proves  just 
the  contrary  of  what  it  is  adduced  to  prove,  by  Eichhorn  and  Heinrichs.  As  to 
Ewald,  he  holds  his  peace  here. 

What  have  we  here  then  .-'  A  doxologv,  in  which  ail  heaven  unite,  framed  so 
as  to  be  made  the  most  significant  possible  by  comprising  the  number  seven,  and  . 
applied  directly  to  the  Lamb,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  same  doxology  is  applied  | 
to  God  in  llev.  7:  12.  What  else  could  the  sacred  writer  expect,  but  that  equal  \ 
glory  and  honour  should  be  paid  to  both,  by  his  readers .'  If  not,  he  has  done  the  | 
utmost  in  his  power  to  lead  them  into  a  mistake. 


¥. 


THE  SEALED  BOOK:    ChAP.    V.  13.  18T 


of  the  world,  to  preside  over  nations,  individuals,  elements,  productions 
of  the  earth,  etc.  For  earlier  and  better  evidence  of  (his  notion  among 
the  Jews,  the  reader  may  consult  the  Exc.  (I.)  connected  with  Rev. 
1:  4,  under  the  head  of  Good  Angels,  Nos.  3.  5.  Assuming  such  a 
basis,  the  meaning  will  be :  '  All  the  angels,  in  every  part  of  the  uni- 
verse, commissioned  to  preside  over  all  its  various  elements — ^land  and 
sea  and  under-world — heard  I  saying,'  etc.  That  rational  beings  are  \ 
meant  the  \\riter  shows,  by  quitting  the  neuter  gender — xTiaiia  .  .  .  a 
.  .  .  Ttt — and  adojiting  the  masculine,  viz.  navrag  .  .  .  )Jyovrag,  a  con-  ' 
structio  ad  sensum.  Tiie  sense  of  the  whole  would  then  be  of  the 
following^enor,-:  '  The  four  living  creatures  and  the  elders  lead  the 
choir ;  the  angels  in  heaven  encircling  them  echo  the  song ;  the  angels 
in  all  parts  of  the  universe — in  earth  and  sea  and  under-world — on 
their  missions  of  love  and  duty,  reecho  it  back  to  the  throne  of  God.' 
A  sublime  and  truly  awful  scene  ! 

If  jiow  any  one  is  not  satisfied  with  this  view,  (one  to  which  Ewald 
gives  Tiis'assent),  then  he  can  explain  xziGf^a  in  a  poetic  manner ;  as 
when  the  Psalmist  calls  on  the  floods  to  clap  their  hands,  and  fire,  hail, 
snow,  vapour,  and  stormy  wind,  etc.,  to  praise  the  Lord  ;  or  as  when 
Isaiah  calls  on  the  heavens  to  listen,  and  the  earth  to  give  eai".     The  J 

whole  creation  echo  back  the  song  to  the  throne  of  Grod,  the  song  of  jfi 
praise,  whose  notes  loud  and  deep  reach  its  utmost  bounds.  Poetically 
understood,  there  is  no  important  objection  to  be  made  to  this ;  and 
many  will  give  this  the  preference.  I  am  rather  inclined,  however,  to 
the  preceding  Qgege.sig^.from  the  view^s  which  I  am  persuaded  were  en- 
tertained by  the  Jews  of  that  period  respecting  angels,  and  which  are 
countenanced  (not  to  say  confirmed)  by  the  Scriptures ;  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  Excursus  above  named. 

In  which  ever  of  these  ways  we  interpret  the  passage,  there  is  no 
room  for  an  interpretation  which  makes  it  designate  a  numerical  and 
literal  all.  The  meaning  here  must  be,  either  that  of  guardian  angels 
in  all  parts  of  the  universe,  or  the  poetic  one  of  the  universe  as  a  whole, 
without  making  or  intending  to  make  individual  distinctions  which  are 
here  uncalled  for.  In  either  case,  human  beings  in  general  are  not 
specified  at  all,  even  if  we  suppose  them,  in  the  latter  case,  to  be  includ- 
ed. If  any  one  is  disposed  to  press  the  literal  and  rigid  sense  of  the 
word  all,  then  how  can  he  exclude  the  material  objects  of  the  creation  ? 
And  why  should  it  be  pressed  here,  except  for  sectarian  purposes,  any 
more  than  when  the  Evangelists  say,  that  "  all  Juded  and  all  the  region 
round  about  Jordan,  went  to  John  and  were  baptized  by  him  ?"  3fatt. 
3:  0,  G.  Mark  1:  5.  Does  this  all  include  the  sick,  tlie  aged,  every  fe- 
male, all  children,  and- all  unbelievers  too  in  religion?  And  so  of  a 
multitude  of  texts  everywhere  to  be  found  in  the  Bible.     Plainly  the 

VOL.  II.  18 


138  INTRODUCTION  TO   ClIAr.    VI XI. 

all  in  the  text  before  us  must  mean -lA^f-o?/  who  were  able  and  disposed 
to  praise  God  and  the  Lamb,  and  who  united  in  the  song  of  praise. 
His  enemies  were  not  disposed  to  unite  in  it. 

Tu  h'  avToig,  i.  e.  7«  [/.tighuto]  iv  avroig,  is  a  general  expression 
designed  to  repeat  and  comprise  all  the  preceding  particulars  which  had 
been  named. — Ei'loyla  y.ai  7 tin],  and  8o^a  vau  y.ndzog,  are  plainly  two 
couplets  here,  forming  two  orr/oi  in  a  kind  of  poetic  measure ;  differing 
in  their  fo)-m,  but  not  in  their  meaning,  from  the  preceding  heptade  (v. 
12)  and  triads  (4:  9,  11)  of  praise;  and  it  seems  probable  that  the 
writer  purposely  made  them  to  differ,  for  the  sake  of  variety.  Here, 
moreover,  God  and  the  Lamb  are  joined  in  the  saTue  doxology.  What 
could  the  writer  mean,  if,  after  all,  the  Lamb  is  merely  a  created  being  ? 

(14)  And  the  four  living*ieatures  said  :  Amen  !  and  the  [iwenty-four]  elders 
fell  down  and  worshipped  f Him  who  liveth  for  ever  and  ever.] 

As  the  act  of  adoration  commenced  with  the  t,bia  and  the  elders,  so 
it  concludes  with  them  ;  i.  e.  they  give  the  last  and  final  response.  The 
t,wa  add  their  solemn  assent  to  all  which  had  been  ascribed  to  the  Lamb. 
— aiii[v,  i.  e.  Veritas,  certum  est.  So  the  Jewish  congi'egation  at  the 
close  of  religious  services,  Deut.  27:  15  seq.  Neh.  5:  13.  So  Chris- 
tians, 1  Cor.  14:  16. 

The  words  included  in  brackets  are  omitted  in  the  majority  of  the 
most  important  Codicgsw  They  are  not  necessary  to  the  sense,  which 
remains  substantially  the  same,  whether  they  are  inserted  or  omitted. 
If  any  one  should  feel  that  the  verb  ^Qoaey-vrr^aav  demands  some  com- 
pleynent  after  it,  an  examination  of  the  word  in  the  Lexicon  will  show 
him  that  it  is  frequently  employed  in  the  absolute  sense,  i.  e.  without 
any  complement.  It  may  be  so  here.  Thus  has  the  wi'iter  prepared 
the  mind  of  his  readers  for  the  expectation  of  something  highly  intei'- 
e^ng,  which  is  to  be  -developed  when  the  sealed  book  shall  be  opened. 
The  next  chapter  presents  us  with  the  commencement  of  the  disclosure. 


Y^^^^v^uM^jy- 


FIRST  CATASTROPHE,  OR   OVERTHROW    OF   THE  JEWISH  PER- 
SECUTING POWER:  CHAP.  VI— XI. 

That  a  work  of  destruction  is  to  be  pei-formed,  is  manifest  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  symbols  presented  as  the  seals  are  successively  opened.  That 
vengeance  is  called  for  and  is  due,  is  made  clearly  manifest,  so  soon  as 
the  dread  array  for  an  attack  is  exhibited;  which  exhibition  is  made  with 
the  breaking  of  the  four  first  seals.  The  duty  assigned  to  the  hosts  that 
are  marshalled,  is  made  prominent  to  our  view  by  the  supplication  of  the 
martyrs  in  6:  9 — 11.  As  yet,  however,  the  writer  has  not  explicitly  dis- 
closed who  are  the  victims  of  divine  justice,  but  only  characterized  them 


INTRODUCTION  TO  Chap.  VI — XL  139 

as  llie  enemios  and  iH-rscciitors  of  the  cliurch ;  altlioupli  it  is  not  diflicult 
for  one  well  acM[ii;iintt'(l  wiili  all  the  bcariiiirs  of  iiis  lanfiiuifrr,  to  coiijccturo 
whom  ho  lias  in  view,  lie  continues  to  liold  his  readers  a  little  perhaps  in 
suspense  until  lie  nearly  reaehes  the  close  of  the  first  catastrophe  ;  although 
chap.  vii.  contains  some  indications  not  to  he  easily  mistaken.  But  in 
chap.  11:  1,  '^,  and  8,  he  seems  (juite  clearly  to  intimate  what  enemies  and 
persecutors  of  tiie  church  are  to  he  cut  oti'  and  destroyed.  Undoubtedly 
he  has  added  interest  to  his  jiroduction,  hy  thus  snspcndinfr,  for  a  time,  the 
anxious  curiosity  of  the  reader.  But  no  well-jxrounded  doubt  can  be  en- 
tertained, at  last,  whose  subjuiration  and  destruction  are  in  fact  predicted 
by  the  series  of  syndmis  employed  in  chap,  vi — xi.  Tliose  who  are  ex- 
empted from  destruction  in  consequence  of  the  seal  of  safety  put  upon 
their  foreheads  by  tlie  jruardian  aiifrel,  are  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  chap, 
vii.  The  necessary  im|»lication  is,  that  the  rest  of  these  tribes  who  arc  not 
sealed,  are  exposed  to  the  doom  which  is  threatened.  So  in  chap.  xi.  John 
is  commanded  to  measure  the  inner  temple  for  preservation,  while  all  the 
rest  of  it  is  devoted  to  ruin  ;  i.  c.  the  essence  of  the  ancient  religion  is  to  be 
presencd,  and  is  incorporated  with  Christianity,  w-hile  all  that  was  merely 
exterior  and  ritual  is  abolished.  The  Gentiles  are  to  tread  down  the  holy 
city  and  temi)le  forty-two  months,  11:  2.  Here,  as  often  in  the  prophets, 
the  metropolis  seems  plainly  to  be  put  for  the  country  at  large.  In  this 
metropolis,  the  two  witnesses  appear,  11:  3;  and  here  they  are  slain,  and 
"  their  corpses  cast  out  into  the  streets  of  the  great  city,  which  is  spirit- 
unlly  called  Sodom  and  Egypt,  where  our  Lord  was  crucifiei),"  11:  8. 
This  identifies  in  such  a  manner  as  to  dissipate  all  reasonable  grounds  of 
doubt. 

The  only  passage  in  cha]).  vi — xi,  which  seems  to  make  against  this 
view,  is  in  Rev.  i):  20,  21.  I  concede  that  the  most  easy  and  natural  inter- 
pretation of  this,  would  be  to  apply  it  to  heathen  idolaters.  But  that  this  is 
not  a  necessary  mode  of  interpretation,  and  that  the  context  forbids  such 
an  ap|)lication,  I  shall  attempt  to  show,  in  commenting  U])on  the  passage. 
^  When  I  say,  that  the  destruction  of  .leriisalem  and  the  wasting  of  Judea 
^are  events  predicted  by  this  portion  of  the  Apocaly])se,  I  do  not  mean  to 
be  imderstood,  that  Rev.  vi — xi.  contains  merely  a  civil  histonj  of  the  Jew- 
ish war.  Nothing,  in  my  apprehension,  can  be  fartlier  from  a  correct  mode 
of  interpretation,  than  a  mere  liistorical  and  literal  aj)pIication  of  any  of 
the  syudiolic  i)art  of  the  Ajiocalypse.  The  projihetic  portion  is  all  symbolical 
picture  ;  but  not  such  a  picture  as  to  constitute  a  regular  histoiy  of  wars 
and  calamities.  In  its  very  nature  most  of  it  is  generic,  and  not  individual 
and  sjtecific.  While,  therefore,  the  plan  of  the  work  is  built  on  the  assutnp- 
tion,  that  the  Jewish  persecuting  j)ower  is  to  be  hinnbled  and  destroyed ; 
and  while  it  even  assumes,  that  in  order  to  the  accomplishment  of  this, 
Judea  shall  be  actually  desolated  ;  yet  [)articular  and  specific  facts,  as  they 
actually  took  place  iu  the  atta<"k  by  the  Romans,  are  scarcely  in  any  in- 
stance to  be  recognized  ;  and  wheii  they  are  so,  it  is  not  for  the  sake  of 
making  out  a  mere  histoiy  of  the  Jewish  war,  but  in  order  to  complete  the 
synnnetry  of  the  writer's  symliolical  picture. 

For  interpreters,  conversant  with  the  prophetic  writings,  and  with  what 
has  been  done  for  the  iiiter|)n'tation  of  them  since  the  jiublication  of  bish- 
op Lowth's  great  work  on  Hebrew  })oetry,  no  defence  of  such  a  position  is 
or  can  be  needed,  for  it  would  be  superfluous.     But  as  this  work  may  fall 


140  INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.   "VI — XI. 

into  the  hands  of  readers  who  have  not  been  thoroughly  discijdined  by  the 
exegetical  study  of  the  Hebrew  jnophets,  and  wlio  liave  always  been  ac- 
customed to  find  tlie  particulars  of  a  civil  history  in  the  Apocalypse,  it  may 
be  necessary  liere  to  proffer  somewhat  specifically  the  reasons  why  we 
should  adopt  a  different  method  of  interpretation. 

I  shall  nr)t  rejjeat,  on  this  occasion,  what  has  already  been  said,  Vol.  I. 
§9  and  §  12,  on  the  olyect  and  design  of  the  Apocalypse,  but  merely  refer 
the  reader,  for  the  leading  and  fundamental  principles  of  exegesis,  to  the 
discussions  there  exhibited.  I  cannot  regard  anything  as  moie  certain,  in 
respect  to  the  object  of  the  Apocalypse,  than  that  its  principal  design  was 
to  hold  up  to  view  a  picture,  which  would  indicate  the  certain  and  univer- 
sal triumph  of  Christianitj' over  all  opposers ;  but  not  in  the  way  of  minute 
and  circumstantial  histoiy,  either  civil  or  ecclesiastical.  On  this  last  ground, 
we  never  could  attain  to  any  satisfactory  certainty  in  our  interpretation.  No 
particulars  of  the  great  contest  are  so  given,  that  they  can  be  identified  with 
actual  occurrences  in  this  war  or  in  that,  in  this  battle  or  in  that.  Of  bat- 
tles that  have  been  actually  fought,  there  are  indeed  some  things  in  the 
Apocalypse  that  might  be  deemed  in  a  good  measure  characteristic.  But 
then  these  same  things  are  characteristics  applicable  in  common  to  all  bat- 
tles, because  in  their  very'  nature  they  are  generic.  And  this  constitutes  a 
good  reason,  why  they  will  not  admit  exclusively  of  any  mere  individual 
and  specific  ayjjjlication.  The  real  thing  symbolized,  is  the  humiliation  and 
prostration  of  the  persecuting  jjower  in  question.  Now  as  nations  are 
usually  deprived  of  their  power  and  humbled  by  means  of  war  and  by  be- 
coming subject  to  conquest,  John  has  employed  symbols  drawn  from  in- 
vading armies,  and  presented  a  most  fearful  array  of  them.  As  moreover 
the  peculiar  judgments  of  heaven  also  concur  oftentimes  in  the  work  of 
humiliation  and  i)rostration,  John  has  added  these  to  the  appalling  instru- 
ments of  destruction.  Such  are  the  simple  elements  of  Rev.  vi — xi,  and 
such  the  design  of  exhibiting  them. 

If  the  reader  has  any  serious  doidjt  of  the  correctness  of  this  principle,  I 
must  entreat  him  to  cast  his  eye  over  Vol.  I.  §  2,  where  the  tenor  of  all  the 
leading  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  respecting  the  church 
is  summarily  exhibited.  When  he  has  deliberately  done  this,  let  him  ask  the 
question :  Is  there  any  analogy  to  be  found  in  all  this  series  of  prophecy, 
to  that  which  is  claimed  by  many  as  to  the  manner  and  meaning  of  the 
Apocalypse  ?  Is  there  any  minute  and  succinct  history,  in  any  of  them,  of 
individual  and  specific  civil  events  which  are  to  take  place  in  the  distant 
future  ?  The  cliurch  of  the  primitive  age,  or  of  any  other,  had  no  special 
interest,  as  Christians,  to  know  what  these  specific  civil  events  would  be. 
All  that  pertains  to  moral  and  religious  comfort,  encouragement,  hope,  and 
even  admonition,  is  comprised  in  the  disclosures  made  respecting  the  ulti- 
mately certain  prosi)erity  and  final  triumph  of  Christianity.  Are  we  then 
to  assume,  that  the  Apocalypse  has  entirely  departed,  in  its  predictions  re- 
specting the  church,  from  the  tenor  of  all  the  other  jirophecies  of  the  like 
nature  ?  Nothing  short  of  absolute  necessity  should  iiuluce  us  to  do  this ; 
and  such  a  necessity,  I  am  fully  persuaded,  does  not  exist. 

But  as  the  point  now  before  us  is  altogether  fundamental  in  respect  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  as  doubts  here  have  occasioned,  and 
still  produce,  a  great  portion  of  the  differences  of  opinion  that  exist  re- 
specting this  book,  I  feel  constrained  to  enter  still  further  than  I  have  yet 


INTRODUCTION  TO  CuAP.   VI — XI.  I4t 

done  into  a  discussion  of  this  matter,  and  to  solicit  the  attention  of  the  rea- 
der to  some  praclicnl  views  of  inter|)retinir  tiie  syinbohc  jiortions  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  to  some  facts  wliich  respect  the  liistorico-civil  method  of  interpre- 
tation, wiiicii  have  not  been  brouirlit  into  view  in  the  first  vohmie  of  this 
work.  The  importance  of  the  subject  is  so  great,  and  the  necessity  of  set- 
tling on  some  principles  to  jruide  us  so  urgent  before  we  proceed  any  fur- 
ther in  our  exegesis,  that  I  would  hope  no  other  apology  is  needed  for  in- 
troducing a  discussion  into  a  Connnentary,  which  might  seem  more  appro- 
priate to  a  book  on  Ilcrmcncutics. 

I  have  stated,  that  in  my  apprehension  the  humiliation  and  prostration  of 
the  Jewish  persectdinir  enemies  of  the  ehurch  is  the  main  triitli  aimed  at  in  Rev. 
vi — xi.  But  my  view  of  the  apocalyptic  representation  is  siich,  that  if  those 
enemies  had  been  huml)led  and  suinlued  by  any  other  nation  than  that  of 
the  Romans,  or  by  a  series  of  judgments  and  misfortunes  altogether  of  a 
different  tenor  iVom  those  which  actually  took  place,  1  should  regard  the 
prophecy  of  .John  as  having  been  just  as  certainly  and  truly  and  fully  ac- 
complished as  it  now  is.  If  this  be  a  correct  view  of  the  case,  then  of 
course  we  are  not  to  seek  for  a  specif  c  apidication  of  the  predictions  of  John. 
The  various  portions  of  his  symbolic  picture  are  all  consentaneous  with 
each  other.  They  make  out  a  congridty  in  his  representations ;  and  this  is 
what  the  interpreter  is  to  look  for,  rather  than  for  any  specific  and  indivi- 
dual aj)plication  to  particular  facts,  either  of  this  portion  of  the  prophecy, 
or  of  that,  to  particular  events  of  the  JewMsh  war. 

If  further  explanation  or  vmdication  of  the  principles  of  exegesis  that  I 
adopt  is  necessary,  it  is  easy  to  make  it.  To  do  this  effectually,  I  must  refer 
to  similar  examples  of  interpreting  the  Scriptures,  of  which  an  abundance 
might  easily  be  produced.  I  will  confine  myself,  however,  to  two  or  three. 
The  18th  Psalm  (vs.  4 — ^20)  affords  an  example  altogether  appropriate  to 
my  purpose.  David,  near  the  close  of  his  life  (comp.  2  Sam.  xxii.),  imder- 
tfikes  to  compose  a  hymn,  which  shall  exhibit  a  grateful  acknowletlgment  of 
all  the  kindnesses  which  he  has  received  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord  ;  specially 
a  grateftd  acknowledgment  of  the  protection  afforded  liim  in  times  of  im- 
minent danger  and  distress,  when  ])owerful  enemies  pressed  upon  him. 
He  tells  us  in  the  inscription  to  the  Psalm,  that  it  was  coiuposed  when 
"  God  had  delivered  him  from  the  hand  of  all  liis  enemies,  and  from  the 
hand  of  Saul." 

In  what  manner,  now,  does  David  execute  his  task  ?  He  represents  him- 
self as  surrounded  with  the  sorrows  of  death,  and  the  floods  of  ungodly 
men;  the  snares  of  death  are  already  cast  around  him,  and  he  seems  to  be 
the  certain  victim  of  his  blood-thirsty  enemies.  In  this  condition  he  sends 
up  his  cry  to  heaven.  Jehovah  hears  it,  and  comes  forth  from  his  holy 
temple,  and  advances  to  the  aid  of  his  servant.  The  earth  shakes  to  its 
foundations  at  his  approach ;  flames  of  fire,  lightnings,  and  thunder,  issue 
from  the  place  of  his  presence.  He  moves  on  in  awful  majesty,  enthroned 
in  the  midst  of  dark  and  portentous  clouds;  on  the  cherubim  (who  support 
his  chariot)  does  he  fly  swift  as  the  winds.  He  arrives  at  the  i)lace  of  con- 
flict. Lightning  and  thunder  and  hail  become  the  executioners  of  liis  ven- 
geance. The  mountains  are  shaken  at  his  presence,  and  the  channels  of 
tlie  great  deep  are  laid  bare  down  to  the  foundations  of  the  earth.  The 
enemy  are  dispersed  and  overthrown,  and  David  not  merely  escapes, 
but  comes  off  conqueror. 


142  INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.    VI — XI. 

Such  is  the  simple,  sublime,  and  most  expressive  representation  of  the 
royal  bard.  The  meaning  of  all  this,  i.  e.  the  simple  truth  or  fact  which 
lies  at  the  basis  of  tlie  whole,  is,  (to  use  his  own  words),  that  "  God  deliver- 
ed him  from  his  strong  enemies,  and  from  them  who  hated  him  and  were 
too  strong  for  him,"  In  other  words :  '  God  interposed,  in  the  day  of  Da- 
vid's calamity  and  danger,  and  delivered  him  from  his  enemies  by  his  kuid 
care  and  guarflian  power.' 

All  this  now  might  have  been  said  in  one  sentence,  so  far  as  it  respects 
the  main  and  simple  truth  aimed  at  in  the  whole  of  David's  symbolical  re- 
presentation ;  just  as  the  doctrine  tauglit  by  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son 
may  be  expressed  in  a  single  verse;  or  tlie  substantial  truths  of  the  book  of 
Job  might  be  comprised  in  three  or  four  sentences.  But  if  David  had  con- 
tented himself  with  merely  saying,  in  the  18th  Psalm,  tiiat  'God  often  in- 
terposed in  his  behalf,  and  delivered  him  when  he  was  in  great  danger,'  he 
would  have  uttered  a  simple  prosaic  truth — the  very  same  truth  which  he 
has  now  adorned  and  illustrated  by  his  poetry — but  he  would  thus  have 
composed  no  hjmn  ;  and  he  would  have  made  but  a  comparatively  faint  im- 
pression on  the  minds  of  his  readers.  Wiio  of  all  the  readers  of  tlie  Bible 
does  not  thank  him  for  the  delightful  Psalm  which  he  composed  on  this 
occasion  ?     And  who  is  not  gratitied  with  the  manner  of  the  composition  ? 

The  nature  of  his  representation,  I  may  add,  we  readily  perceive.  By  a 
symbolic  picture  he  has  taught  us  some  important  and  cheering  truths.  He 
has  thus  contrived  to  make  a  much  deeper  impression  on  the  minds  of  his 
readers,  than  he  could  possible  have  made  by  any  merely  prosaic  declara- 
tions. Nor  is  there  any  jjlausible  ground  for  mistake  here.  No  intelligent 
reader  of  this  Psalm  can  for  a  moment  suppose,  that  any  part  of  this  repre- 
sentation is  to  be  liieralli)  interpreted.  Such  an  interpretation  would  pre- 
sent imi)0ssibilities.  What  David  means  to  have  us  understand  is,  that  so 
signal  and  jjeculiar  had  been  tlie  deliverances  and  escapes  which  Heaven 
had  vouchsafed  to  him,  that  he  might  well  represent  his  case  to  be  like  that 
which  would  be  presented  by  an  interposition  of  the  Godhead  such  as  he 
here  descriiies.  In  other  words,  his  own  deliverances  may  be  compared  to 
that  which  is  represented  b}'  such  a  picture  as  he  draws. 

This  case  is  so  plain,  that  there  can  be  no  reasonable  dispute  here.  Let 
us  see,  then,  what  instruction  can  be  drawn  from  it. 

Here  is  one  picture;  ajjparently  one  transaction,  o?ie occasion, and  hut  one, 
in  the  18th  Psalm.  Yet  the  author  tells  us,  that  it  was  composed  in  com- 
memoration of  a//  his  deliverances  and  all  his  escapes  from  danger.  We 
will  suppose  then,  that  one  of  the  literally  historic  interpreters  of  tlie  Apoc- 
alypse is  desired  to  give  us  an  exjiosition  of  the  18lh  Psalm,  and  to  do  this 
by  the  application  of  the  same  exegetical  principles  which  he  applies  to  the 
Apocalypse.  How  can  this  be  accomiilished  ?  Many  scores  of  battles  Da- 
vid fought;  whicli  of  them  now  is  portrayed  in  the  18th  Psalm?  Which 
of  them  all  has  the  exclusive  right  to  such  a  preference  as  that  of  being  the 
only  one  there  represented  ?  It  is  easy  to  see,  that  a  choice  in  this  case  is 
impossible.  Any  one  of  all  the  dangerous  battles  which  David  fouglit,  and 
in  which  he  conquered,  may  be  symbolized  by  the  18th  Psalm ;  and  so,  of 
course,  they  may  all  be  symbolized  by  it;  or  (which  is  equally  true),  <^?/ are 
in  fact  ALL  symbolized  by  it.  No  expositor  has  a  right  to  select  any  one  from 
the  rest,  and  say  that  the  18th  Psalm  means  only  that  one.  The  represen- 
tation of  David  is  essentially  g-ene?-ic ;  it  virtually  comprises  all  particulai-s, 


TXTTionrcTiox  to  Cn.vr.  VI — XT.  143 

whilp  at  tliP  same  tinio  it  oxliihitt^  iiotliin<rwliicli  would  distiiipnisli  one  from 
another.  Tliis  would  in  tiu't  be  nothing  less  than  to  mar  the  i^f7icri'c  nature 
of  the  representation. 

Will  any  one  8ay  now,  that,  because  minute  and  pnrficitlar  facts  are  not 
designated  in  this  representation,  therefore  it  has  no  matter  of  fact  for  its 
bjisis  ?  Nothing  could  he  further  from  truth,  than  such  an  allirmation.  In- 
stead of  saying  that  I'salm  It^th  has  lio  basis  in  fact,  because  it  does  not 
specially  symbolize  particular  facts  or  individual  occurrences,  truth  must 
say,  that  t'or  the  very  reason  the  representation  is  ij-cHmc,  it  of  course  is  the 
mo/<t  sisrnijlcant  of  all.  To  make  it  symbolize  only  this  particular  fact  or  that, 
in  the  life  of  David,  would  be  to  take  away  a  great  part  of  its  i)resent  sig- 
nificancy,  and  tlierelbrc  to  degrade  it. 

The  case  of  the  Apocalypse,  I  may  now  say,  is  substantially  before  us. 
Here  is  a  symbolic  pictiu'e  of  the  humiliation  and  oveitbrow  of  the  then 
persecuting  Jewish  jjower,  presented  us  in  Rev.  vi — xi.  Here,  as  in  the 
18th  Psalm,  is  a  sceneric  idea  to  be  set  forth,  and  dee])ly  impressed  upon  the 
readers  of  the  Revelation.  John  has  drawn  this  picture  with  a  master-hand. 
But  now,  at^er  such  a  lapse  of  time,  Avlien  tlie  circumstances  which  then 
urged  him  to  do  this  have  been  obscured  by  intervening  ages,  some  specta- 
tor of  this  pictm-e,  we  will  suppose,  rises  up  and  says,  that  all  of  it  is  to  be 
inter|)reted  oidy  by  a  reference  to  this  or  that  si>ecific  or  individual  event. 
This  is  a  degradation  of  the  symbolic  picture  of  John,  to  which  it  ought 
not  to  be  subjected ;  it  must  not  be,  iniless  taste  and  propri(;ty  are  to  be 
laid  aside,  and  we  are  to  form  a  judgment,  not  only  without  their  aid,  but 
against  their  fundamental  princi|)les.  A  minute  historic,  interpretation  of 
the  Apocalypse,  in  the  sense  now  ^oken  of,  would  deprive  the  book  of 
more  than  three  quarters  of  all  its  nieaning.  It  is  no  more  to  be  tolerated 
here,  than  in  the  IStli  Psalm. 

It  would  be  easy  further  to  illustrate  and  confirm  the  principle  thus  advo- 
cated, by  a  reference  to  Isaiah  xiii.  xiv.  and  also  Is.  21:  1 — 10.  The  de- 
struction of  Babylon  was  decreed,  and  is  there  announced.  But  nearly 
everything  is  in  the  most  generic  terms.  In  Is.  xiii.  xiv,  the  Medes  are  in- 
deed once  named ;  but  besides  this,  we  could  not,  independent  of  subse- 
quent history,  even  conjecture  by  w  horn  the  destruction  is  to  be  accomjjlisli- 
ed.  "  Distant  nations,"  "  consecrated  warriors,"  are  summoned  to  do  the 
work  of  destruction  ;  it  is  speedih/  to  be  done  (13:  22);  the  king  of  Babylon 
is  to  be  slain  in  an  assaidt  by  night,  and  to  lie  unburied ;  he  will  go  down 
into  Sheol,  and  there  all  the  mighty  dead  will  rise  up  and  insult  him  with 
the  most  bitter  rejjroaches.  The  city  is  to  be  swept  with  the  besom  of  de- 
struction. Here,  with  the  exce])tion  of  what  has  particular  reference  to  an 
individual  king,  the  last  monarch  of  Babylon,  (which  from  the  very  nature 
of  tlie  case  is  necessarily  ijarticular),  all  is  s;eneric.  When  ;  how  ;  by  what 
particidar  battles,  sieges,  and  stratagems;  the  mistress  of  the  world  is  to  be 
luimbled  and  destroyed — is  not  said.  The  prophet  contents  himself  with 
merely  a  generic  representation. 

Even  with  rcs|)ect  to  the  last  monarch  of  the  Babylonish  empire,  how 
much  is  there  which  is  merely  symbolical  ?  The  whole  of  the  striking  de- 
scription of  his  descent  into  Sheol,  and  of  the  scenes  which  i)ass  there 
(chap,  xiv.),  must  be  imderstood  of  cotirse  oidy  in  a  gen«'ric  way.  The 
amount  of  the  meaning  is,  that  the  last  monarch  of  that  enij)ire  will  be 


144  INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.  VI — XI. 

slain  in  tlie  sacking  of  the  city,  will  lie   undistinguished  among  the  slain, 
and  go  down  to  his  grave  with  reproaches  and  bitter  contempt. 

So  in  the  vivid  picture  presented  by  Is.  xxi.  Here,  indeed,  the  neigh- 
bouring and  most  formidable  enemies  of  Babylon  are  named,  viz.  Media, 
and  Persia.  But  all  else  is  symbol  of  the  most  generic  kind.  The  seer  is 
filled  with  deep  distress  at  the  vision  which  is  here  disclosed  to  his  view. 
The  city  of  Babylon,  (itself  not  named,  at  first,  but  called,  "  the  desert  of  the 
sea,"  i.  e.  of  the  great  river  Euphrates),  is  plunged  into  the  deepest  revelry 
by  night;  the  proj^liet  is  conunissioned  to  set  a  watchman  on  its  walls,  in 
order  that  he  should  proclaim  what  he  may  see.  In  a  little  time  he  des- 
cries chariots  and  horsemen  swiftly  advancing.  No  sooner  do  they  come, 
than  all  is  theirs ;  and  the  watchman  has  only  to  proclaim  tliat  "  Baby- 
lon is  fallen,  is  fallen." 

What  have  we  now  in  this  picture  ?  We  have  the  prophetic  annuncia- 
tion, that  Babylon  would  fall  suddenlj',  unexpectedly,  and  so  as  to  rise  no 
more;  and  this,  by  the  hands  of  tlie  Medes  and  Persians.  Beyond  this 
the  symbols  do  not  reach.  Probably  more  than  this  of  particulars  was  not 
disclosed  to  the  mind  of  the  seer. 

Let  us  return  again  to  the  Apocalypse.  At  first  the  enemy  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  fearful  host  that  are  assembled,  is  not  named.  We  advance 
some  way  in  the  description,  before  we  begin  to  see  whither  the  view  of 
the  Apocalyptist  is  directed.  When  danger  becomes  so  pressing,  tliat'  it 
would  seem  as  if  none  could  escape  destruction,  then  all  the  raging  ele- 
ments are  hushed  to  peace,  and  God,  in  mercy  to  the  disciples  of  his  be- 
loved Son,  directs  that  his  seal  should  be  put  i]pon  their  foreheads,  so  that 
they  may  be  passed  by  when  the  destroying  angel  completes  his  work. 
And  who  are  they  that  are  thus  sealed'^  They  are  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel.  And  who  then  are  they,  against  whom  the  dread  array  in  readi- 
ness is  commissioned  ?  Of  course  they  are  the  same  people,  fi-om  whom 
the  144,000  have  been  selected. 

All  seems  now  to  be  in  readiness  for  consummation.  Only  the  seventh 
and  last  seal  remains  to  be  broken,  and  then  the  tragedy  is  apparently  to 
be  completed.  Accordingly,  Avhen  that  seal  is  broken,  all  heaven  stand 
silent  (8:  ] )  with  fearful  expectation.  But  judgment  is  the  strange  work 
of  God,  and  he  is  long-suffering  and  of  great  compassion  toward  his  once 
beloved  people.  The  catastrophe  is  still  deferred ;  for  the  seventh  seal  is 
divided  into  seven  parts,  i.  e.  seven  different  stages  of  accomplishment, 
designated  by  the  symbols  of  seven  trumpets.  The  first  four  of  these,  like 
the  first  four  seals,  indicate  principally  the  preparatory  work  of  destruction. 
The  first  and  second  of  the  last  three  make  fearful  jirogi-ess  in  the  work 
itself,  and  the  final  trumpet  brings  all  to  its  consummation,  chap,  ix — xi. 
Near  the  close  of  the  whole  representation,  i.  e.  in  chap,  xi.,  (just  as  in  Isaiah 
xxi.),  we  are  distinctly  advertised  on  whom  the  judgments  of  heaven  are 
descending — viz.,  on  that  "  great  city  w  hich  is  spiritually  called  Sodom  and 
Egypt,  ivhere  their  Lord  ivas  crucified,^''  11:  8. 

Now  in  what  important  respect  does  all  this  differ  from  the  prophecies  in 
Isaiah,  or  from  the  18th  Psalm  ?  In  none  except  as  to  the  manner  of  the 
representation.  Li  the  Revelation,  the  machineiy  (if  I  may  so  speak)  is 
much  more  complicated.  Or  I  may  characterize  it  in  a  different  inanner 
still,  by  saying  that  the  wi-iter  has  with  great  skill  delayed  the  catastrophe. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  CuAP.  VI — XL  145 

and  given  us  several  episodes  for  this  purpose,  wliich  contain  matter  of 
tlu-illing  interest.  Such  are  tlie  scenes  in  chap.  vii.  Such  is  the  tlivisinii  of 
the  scvoUh  seal  into  another  period  of  seven  parts,  distiuiifuished  hy  llic 
trumpets.  The  locusts  and  the  '^00,000,000  horsemen  from  the  East,  in 
ciiap.  ix.,  are  not  episodes,  for  they  make  direct  advances  toward  the  com- 
pletion of  the  main  work.  Chap.  x.  again  is  episode.  Near  as  the  work 
seems  to  be  to  its  completion,  yet  it  is  not  brought  to  a  close  without  a  re- 
newed and  most  solemn  declaration  on  the  |)art  of  heaven,  that  delay  shall 
be  no  longer  than  A\lien  the  seventh  and  last  trumpet  shall  sound;  10:  1 — 7. 

Here  too,  at  this  point  of  time,  the  prophet  receives  a  new  commission. 
The  book  with  seven  seals  has  been  opened,  and  its  contents  exhibited. 
The  tinal  stroke  only  remains,  for  entire  comi)letion.  A  new  book,  and  a 
new  commission  respecting  other  enemies  of  the  church,  are  now  sunnna- 
rily  presented  to  view;  10:  t? — 11.  But  no  further  explanation  is  here  made. 
The  reader  is  thus  advertised,  that  when  the  catastrophe  but  just  before 
hiin  shall  be  past,  other  scenes  of  the  like  nature  are  to  be  expected.  All 
this  we  may  name  episode  ;  but  it  is  ej)isode  of  a  very  interesting  character. 
All  contributes  to  delay  the  caUistrophe ;  but  this  delay  exhibits,  in  a 
sti-iking  light,  the  long  suffering  of  God  toward  his  jjcople. 

In  chap.  vi.  the  writer  has  presented  us  with  a  view  of  the  martyrs  in 
heaven,  at  the  foot  of  the  altar  there,  making  supplication  that  God  would 
interpose  in  behalf  of  his  jjcrsecuted  servants.  A  favourable  response  is 
given  to  their  request;  but  they  are  told,  that  they  must  wait  a  while  longer, 
until  others  of  their  brethren  shall  also  have  been  slain,  in  like  manner  as 
they  had  been.  The  effect  of  such  a  supplication  upon  an  army  ready  for 
the  onset  of  battle,  such  as  chap.  G:  1 — 8  exhibits,  is  easy  to  be  perceived. 
In  chap.  .\i.  we  have  a  sketch  of  the  fulfilment  of  what  is  j)redicted  in  chap, 
vi.  respecting  other  martyrs.  In  chap.  xi.  two  distinguished  witnesses,  (two 
are  the  competent  number  for  testimony),  i.  e.  leaders  or  pieachers  of  Chris- 
tianity, are  represented  as  declaring  their  testimony  to  the  true  religion ;  as 
being  endowed  with  miraculous  power,  like  the  prophets  Elijah  and  Moses; 
and  finally,  as  becoming  the  victims  of  popular  fury,  because  of  their  fidel- 
ity. Here  then  is  the  finishing  stroke  of  prei)aration.  It  was  not  Christians 
only  from  the  ranks  of  undistinguished  men,  who  were  persecuted  and  de- 
stroyed, but  the  most  eminent  servants  of  God,  those  who  had  given  proof 
of  their  divine  mission  by  the  exertion  of  miraculous  powers,  were  also  de- 
stroyed. Heaven's  vengeance,  then,  can  sleep  no  longer.  The  delay  until 
other  martyrs  shoidd  be  added  to  the  number  of  those  who  were  already 
in  heaven  (tJ:  11),  has  taken  j)lace  and  is  now  at  an  end.  The  cup  of  in- 
dignation is  full,  for  wickedness  has  come  to  its  consummation.  The 
seventh  angel  therefore  sounds,  and  all  is  finished.  The  writer  ])resents  us 
with  the  songs  of  victor}'  (11:  15 — 18),  and  with  the  consequences  of  it 
(11:  HI);  and  also  with  the  ensigns  of  final  destruction  (11:  19);  but — he  is 
a  Jew,  and  how  can  he  dwell  on  the  destruction  of  his  beloved  city  and 
temple,  with  a  minuteness  of  representation  ?  He  turned  from  the  scene 
with  wee|)ing  as  a  sympathizing  Jew,  but  also,  as  a  Christian,  min^ding 
tears  of  joy  therewith,  because  Christianity  is  freed  from  a  diieful  and  em- 
bittered enemy. 

That  there  is  a  real  cata.stroi)he  at  the  end  of  chap,  xi.,  I  camiot  doubt, 
after  weighing  long  and  often  the  reasons  alleged  against  it,  by  Bleek,  De 

VOL.  II.  19 


146  INTRODUCTION  TO  ClIAP.  VI — XL 

Wette,  Schott,  Ewald,  Liicke,  and  others.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  marks 
ofitarcpkiin  and  unequivocal.  But  I  must  remit  the  reader  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject  connected  with  the  commentaiy  on  ]1:  15 — 19,  and 
to  the  remarks  made  in  the  Introduction  to  this  Commentary,  Vol.  I.  p. 
180  scq. 

If  tills  view  be  correct  as  to  its  leading  features,  then  does  the  Apoca- 
lypse, at  least  this  part  of  it,  differ  not  essentially  from  the  18th  Psalm, 
nor  from  Is.  xiii.  xiv.  and  xxi,  except  as  to  length  and  episodes.  These  are 
peculiar  to  the  writer  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  show,  that  with  all  his  refer- 
ences to  the  O.  Testament,  and  his  continual  reliance  upon  it,  he  is  no 
mere  imitator,  no  copyist.  The  very  nature  of  his  plan  required  delay,  6: 
11.  He  has  shown  why  this  requisition  was  made  ;  and  how  the  implied 
pledge  was  redeemed,  which  had  been  given  to  the  martyrs.  But  his 
episodes  are  scarcely  of  less  interest  than  his  main  story ;  and  while  they 
make  the  reader  anxious  how  and  when  he  is  to  airive  at  the  catastrophe, 
they  repay  the  suspension  of  his  curiosity  m  one  respect,  by  scenes  of  ex- 
citing interest  in  another. 

It  is  thus  that  I  find  a  simple  unity  (of  a  generic  nature  indeed),  in  this 
first  catastrophe,  i.  e.  in  Rev.  vi — xi. ;  as  simple  as  that  in  Ps.  xviii,  or  in 
Is.  xiii.  xiv,  or  Is.  xxi.  Every  part  advances  steadily  toward  the  consum- 
mation. As  all  the  seals  of  the  book  ai-e  opened,  of  course  all  its  contents 
are  submitted  to  inspection.  The  number  seven  twice  repeated,  in  the 
seals  and  in  the  trumpets;  the  oath  of  the  angel  (10:  6,  7);  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  prediction,  that  more  martyrs  must  be  slain,  before  the 
consummation,  with  the  account  of  their  persecution  and  death  (6:  11  and 
11:  3 — 13);  all  these  combine  to  show,  that  the  first  catastrophe  is  complete, 
and  that  the  great  mysteiy  of  God,  contained  in  the  sealed  book,  is  made 
known  to  his  servants,  by  the  disclosures  in  chap,  vi — xi. 

Thus  understood,  our  general  course  of  interpretation  is  plain.  We  are 
not  constrained  to  turn  over  the  pages  of  Josephus,  in  order  to  find  speci- 
fic events,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  fulfilment  of  this  or  that  passage  in 
the  Apocalypse.  If  no  history  by  Josephus  was  in  existence,  the  triumphal 
arch  of  Titus  at  Rome  would  tell  the  story,  that  Rev.  vi — xi.  has  been 
fulfilled. 

Equally  would  it  have  been  fulfilled,  as  I  have  already  remarked,  had  the 
Jewish  persecuting  power  been  crushed  in  any  other  way,  or  by  any  other 
means.  Of  course,  if  this  be  true,  it  was  and  is  the  general  truth  which 
John  has  given  us,  and  not  a  minute  pragmatic  history  of  the  war,  like  that 
of  Josephus. 

One  more  remark  seems  obvious,  and  is  not  without  its  importance. 
Rev.  vi — xi.  seems  to  be,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  commentary  on  the  words 
of  our  Saviour  in  Matt.  xxiv.  John  heard  those  words.  The  impression 
could  never  have  been  erased.  He  has  indeed  given  the  subject  a  new 
form  ;  yet  his  allusions  to  the  words  of  his  Master  cannot  well  be  mistaken, 
by  any  careful  and  intelligent  reader. 

If,  hoM^ever,  after  all  these  explanations  and  statements  of  hermeneuti- 
cal  principles,  any  one  should  still  feel  himself  to  be  at  a  loss  definitely  and 
plainly  to  comprehend  my  meaning,  I  must  beg  the  liberty  to  place  before 
him  some  striking  examples  of  the  method  of  interpretation  against  which 
I  am  contending.    In  my  apprehension  they  will  not  only  answer  the  pur- 


INTRODUCTION  TO  CuAP.  VI — XL  147 

j>ose  of  complete  explaiintion,  but  present  a  cogent  argunieut  against  tlie 
inetlioc)  of  exegesis  now  in  ipu'stion. 

I  shall  select  for  examples  writers  who  are  no  enthusiasts,  and  who 
occupy  no  ordinary  rank  among  tlio  critical  interpreters  of  the  N.  Testa- 
ment To  bring  examples  taken  ti-om  the  many  interpreters,  who  have 
endeavoured  to  explain  the  Apocalypse  merely  by  the  dextrous  use  of  the 
faculty  ot' giiessinir,  would  be  to  little  or  no  purpose.  I  select,  therefore,  in 
the  tirst  place,  a  critic  of  no  less  note  than  J.  J.  Wetstein,  in  order  to  illus- 
trate how  lar  the  jtrinciple  of  making  out  a  syllabus  of  civil  history  from 
the  Apocalyi>se  has  been  carried,  by  nien  of  distinguished  talents  and 
ac(|uisitions. 

Wetstein  lays  down  the  position,  that  the  first  pait  of  the  Apocalypse 
has  respect  to  Judca  anil  the  Jews;  the  second,  to  the  Romau  empire.  He 
then  proceeds  thus : 

"The  book  written  within,  and  upon  the  back,  and  sealed  with  seven 
seals  (5:  1),  is  the  book  of  divorcement  sent  to  the  .lewish  nation  from  God. 
(a)  The  victor  hoi-semaii,  crowned,  and  armed  with  a  bow  (0:  1),  is  Artaba- 
nus,  king  of  the  Parthians,  who  smote  the  Jews  in  Babylon  with  great 
slaughter.  (6)  The  retl  horse  (v.  4)  means  the  assassins  and  robbers  of 
Judea,  in  the  times  of  Felix  and  Festus,  presidents  of  the  province. 
(c)  The  black  horse  (v.  G)  means  the  famine  under  Claudius,  {d)  The  pale 
horse  (v.  8),  the  pestilence  which  followed  famine  and  pillage,  (e)  The 
souls  of  the  martyrs  (v.  9),  Christians  in  Judea  who  were  persecuted,  and 
were  about  to  be  vindicated.  (/)  The  earth(juake  (v.  12),  commotion  in 
Judea  preparatory  to  rebellion.  The  servants  of  God  sealed  in  their  fore- 
heads out  of  every  tribe  (7:  3),  Christians  under  the  guardian  care  of  God, 
who  are  admonished  by  prophets,  that  they  should  early  Avithdraw  from 
the  tempest  approaching,  (g)  Silence  for  half  an  hour  (8:  ]),  a  brief  I'cspite 
conceded  to  the  ejitreaties  of  king  Agrippa. 

"  Next  follows  the  rebellion  itself,  [of  the  Jews],  (a)  The  trees  burned 
(v.  7)  means  the  country  places,  and  villages,  and  unfortified  towns  of 
Judea,  which  were  first  affected  with  the  evils  of  sedition.  (6)  A  great 
burning  mountain  cast  into  the  sea,  and  staining  it  with  blood  ;  and  (c)  A 
flaming  star  falling  upon  the  rivers  and  making  the  waters  bitter  (vs.  8 — 
11),  mean  the  slaughter  of  the  Jews  at  Cesarea  and  Scythopolis.  (d)  The 
obscuration  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  (v.  12),  anarchy  in  the  Jewish  com- 
monwealth, (e)  Locusts  stinging  men  like  scorpions  (9:  3),  the  expedition 
of  Cestius  Gallus,  Praefect  of  Syria.  (/)  The  army  with  particoloured 
armour  (vs.  16,  17),  Vespasian's  forces  in  Judea. 

"The  death  of  Nero  and  of  Galba  took  place  at  this  time,  and  civil  war 
followed  this,  (10:  7,  11.  11:  15).  The  two  prophetic  witnesses,  or  the  two 
olive-trees  and  two  candlesticks,  (11:  3,  4),  mean  prophets  in  the  church 
predicting  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  Jewish  commonwealth.  The 
death  of  the  prophets  (v.  7),  means  their  flight,  and  that  of  the  church  at 
Jerusalem,  to  Pella  in  Arabia.  The  return  of  the  prophets  to  lift;  after 
three  days  and  a  half  (v.  II),  means  prophecies  beginning  to  be  fulfilled,  at 
a  time  when  it  was  thought  they  never  would  be  fulfilled,  nor  the  doctrine 
of  Christ  j)revail  in  Judea  and  throughout  the  world.  ...  A  tenth  part  of 
the  city  falling,  the  siime  hour,  and  7000  men  slain  (v.  13),  Jerusalem  oc- 
cupied by  the  Idumeans,  and  many  priests  and  nobles,  together  with  tJje 


148  INTRODUCTION  TO  ClIAP.  VI — XL 

high-priest  Ananiis,  massacred  by  the  Zealots."  Wetst.  Nov.  Test.  II.  p» 
889  seq. 

Having  thus  carried  us  through  the  first  great  catastrophe,  (yet  without 
noting  the  destruction  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem),  Wetstein  proceeds  in  the 
same  style  with  the  civil  history  of  Rome,  included,  as  he  sup])oses,  in 
chap,  xii — xix. ;  and  in  this  he  of  course  finds  everywhere  individual  em- 
perors, battles,  sieges,  plagues,  commotions,  etc.  Finally  the  grand  con- 
summation (chap,  xix.)  is,  that  Vespasian  and  all  his  family  become  extinct, 
and  so  great  Babylon  is  fallen.  Can  one  now  refrain  from  asking:  Ti  xov~ 
TO,  il  fit)  TM  niivTu  iluiToiKT&ai;  There  arises  an  almost  instinctive  percep- 
tion of  degradation,  wlien  one  looks  on  such  a  portrait. 

Let  us  now  listen  to  Herder,  who  has  adopted  many  of  the  general  out- 
lines of  Wetstein,  but  has  filled  out  his  picture  in  a  different  way,  and  with 
much  more  life  and  animation,  not  to  say  probability.  In  his  Maran  Atha, 
(one  of  the  most  delightful  books  which  he  ever  wrote),  he  has  given  us 
the  following  clue. 

'  The  conqueror  with  the  bow  (Rev.  6:  2)  is  Aretas,  the  Arabian  king, 
who  overthrew  Herod  with  great  slaughter.  The  red  horse  (6:  4)  means  the 
dissensions,  commotions,  bloodshed,  assassinations,  and  murders,  among  the 
Jews  in  various  countries  and  regions.  The  black  horse  (6:  5)  was  the 
famine  in  the  time  of  Claudius;  upon  which  (6:  8)  followed  the  pale  horse, 
i.  e.  pestilence  and  death.  "  Wretched  Judea  !"  he  exclaims,  "  thus  opens 
the  book  of  thy  destinies !  From  the  four  sides  of  the  throne  of  thy  God, 
[referring  to  the  voices  of  the  four  living  creatures],  the  cry  respecting  thee 
is  heard :  Come  and  see !  On  all  sides  is  wretchedness."  The  fifth  seal 
(5:  9  seq.)  presents  the  cry  of  the  Christian  martyrs  amidst  these  scenes  of 
confusion  and  blood.  The  earthquake,  etc.,  which  follows,  designates  the 
consternation  of  the  Jewish  people.  The  sealing  of  the  servants  of  God 
(7:  1  seq.)  is  the  escape  of  Christians  to  Pella.  The  first  four  trumpets  (8: 
1  seq.)  are  signals  of  tumults,  massacres,  contests,  etc.,  internal  and  exter- 
nal, under  Florus,  and  the  zealot  Eleazer.  The  locusts  (9:  1  seq.)  are  the 
robbers  and  assassins  during  the  five  months  in  which  Vespasian  traversed 
Judea ;  and  Menahem,  the  son  of  Judah  the  Galilaean,  (Jos.  Bell.  Jud.  11. 
17),  is  the  key  to  the  bottomless  pit  (9:  1).  The  horsemen  from  the  Euplirates 
(9:  13  seq.)  are  the  Roman  legions  which  Titus  led  from  the  East.  The 
wasting  and  treading  down  of  the  city  and  temple  (11:  2)  are  the  zealots 
and  the  Idumeans  in  the  city,  who  fill  all  places  with  blood.  The  two  wit- 
nesses (11:  3  seq.)  are  the  high  priests,  Ananus  and  Jesus.  The  seventh 
and  last  trumpet  is  only  the  signal  of  triunqih  to  the  church.  The  consum- 
mation or  final  overthrow  of  Jerusalem  is  put  off",  bj'  Herder,  to  another 
part  of  the  book ;'  Maran  Atha,  pp.  G4  seq. 

How  different  this  is  from  the  picture  of  Wetstein,  eveiy  intelligent  rea- 
der will  at  once  perceive.  Yet  the  general  outlines,  and  the  principles  of 
interpretation,  are  the  same  in  both.  But  Herder's  vivid  imagination  guides 
him  in  selecting  all  that  is  thrilling  and  terrific,  from  the  boundless  field  in 
which  he  and  Wetstein  both  took  an  unrestrained  liberty  to  range. 

Justice  requires  some  notice  here  of  the  celebrated  English  interpreter, 
Joseph  Mede;  whose  little  work  on  the  Apocalypse,  (Clavis  Apocalyptica), 
seems  to  have  been  the  pole-star,  in  the  main,  of  the  English  interpreters 
of  this  book. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.   VI — XL  149 

In  a  direction  qiiito  (iifttM-ont  indeed  docs  he  move.  The  seven  senls  are, 
witli  him,  a  stillafnts  of  Roman  hi.itnn/.  '  The  wliite  horse  is  the  Roman  em- 
pire, peaceful,  tlourishinfr,  li-ared  by  foreifrn  nations,  after  the  Jewish  war 
was  completed  liy  Ves|>asian.  The  red  horse  is  the  same  empire  under 
Trajan  and  Mark  Aureliaii.  The  black  horse  witii  the  balance,  means  the 
severe  justice  of  both  the  Severi,  and  also  of  Scptimins,  and  Alexander. 
Tlie  i)ale  horse,  is  fiunine,  j)e8tilence,  and  many  other  evils,  about  the  time 
of  Decius,  Gallus,  and  Valerian.  The  souls  under  tlie  altar,  demanding,'  ven- 
geance, means  the  ])ersecution  of  Diocletian.  The  heavens  rolled  tojiether 
and  lemoved,  on  the  o|)cninj,'  of  the  sixth  seal,  means  the  changes  which 
took  place  under  Coiistantine,  when  I'agani^m  was  compelled  to  yield  to 
Christianity.  The  seven  trumjjets  exjjlain  the  complex  import  of  the  seventh 
seal,  and  portray  the  judgments  by  which  God  had  determined  to  chastise 
and  overturn  the  Roman  empire,  after  the  time  of  Constantine,  i.  e.  the  ir- 
ruption of  the  barbarians,'  etc. 

Such  are  the  outlines  of  Mode's  exposition  of  the  first  half  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse. It  is  no  part  of  my  intention  particularly  to  examine  them,  either  at 
large  or  in  detail.  Whoever  desires  to  see  a  fatal  overthrow  of  the  whole 
scheme,  may  consult  Vitringa  in  Apoc.  pp.  230  seq. 

But  has  the  masterly  critic,  last  named,  substituted  an  interi)retation 
more  probalile  and  ratioual  than  that  which  be  has  demolished  ?  We  must 
consent  to  liear  him,  before  we  reply. 

'  The  w  bite  horse  and  the  conqueror  upon  him  signify  the  peaceful  and 
flourishing  state  of  the  church,  from  the  reign  of  Nerva  to  that  of  Decius, 
through  150  years ;  ]).  249.  The  red  horse  means  the  persecutions  after 
the  middle  of  the  third  century;  p.  255.  The  black  horse  denotes  the 
church,  tVom  the  time  of  Constantine  to  the  ninth  century,  torn  with  fac- 
tions and  heresies,  and  often  depressed  by  public  calamities;  p.  261.  The 
pale  horse  denotes  the  ravages  of  the  Sai'acens  and  Turks;  p.  2()7.  The 
fifth  seal  designates  the  sufferings  of  the  Albigenses,  Bohemian  Brethren, 
and  martyrs  of  the  Reformed  Clnn-ch;  p.  275.  The  sixth  seal  signifies 
either  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  conunonwealth ;  or  the  changes  which 
took  ])lace  under  Constantine;  or  the  connnotions  in  Europe  at  the  time  of 
the  Reformation  ;  but  it  is  better  to  apply  it  to  the  destruction  of  Antichrist ; 
p.  291  seq.  Rev.  7:  1  seq.  denotes  the  prosperity  and  gloiy  of  the  church, 
and  God's  care  for  its  welfare,  after  the  destruction  of  Antichrist;  and  so 
the  last  part  of  this  chapter  is  a  description  of  the  millennial  day;  ]i.  318. 
The  silence  in  heaven  lor  half  an  hour,  after  the  loosing  of  the  seventh 
seal,  denotes  the  long  continued  (?)  prosperous,  peaceftil,  and  hap[»y  st;ite 
of  the  church;  p.  326.  And  finally  ;  he  separates  the  seven  trumpets  entirely 
from  the  seventh  seal,  and  represents  them  as  relating  to  the  externnl  stjite 
of  the  church  on  earth  while  under  the  influence  of  the  Ronum  empire ; 
but  especially  as  relating  to  the  evils  threatened  to  that  empire,  both  in  its 
pagan  and  apostate  Christian  state;'  pp.  327,  32i). 

Neither  of  the  preceding  schemes  of  exjdanation  appears  to  me  at  all 
comparable  with  this,  (although  this  is  from  the  hand  of  such  a  master), 
either  in  respect  to  extravagance  or  inconsistency.  Wetstein  and  Herder 
preserve  at  least  a  kind  of  consistency,  and  have  some  regard  tf)  the  unitj/ 
of  John's  design.  Mede  has  been  consistent  in  his  efforts  to  make  out  the 
whole  book  to  be  but  a  syllabus  of  Roman  civil  history.  But  Vitringa  has 
ranged  through  all  times,  all  places,  all  nations,  from  Diocletian  down  to 


150  INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.    VI — XL 

the  final  consummation.  In  the  verj'  same  cliapter  (vi.),  we  have  the  history 
of  the  church  from  Nerva  down  to  the  Millennium  ;  and  in  Rev.  6:  12 — 17, 
we  have,  if  not  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  Commonwealth  and  of  the 
pagan  power  under  Constantine,  with  the  overturns  made  by  Luther  and 
his  compeers,  yet  certainly  the  overthrow  of  Antichrist,  and  the  happy 
state  of  things  in  the  Millennium.  All  this,  before  the  seventh  seal  is  bro- 
ken ;  and  then,  when  it  is  broken,  a  half  hour's  silence  is  itself  another  pic- 
ture of  the  Millennium.  Last  of  all,  the  seven  trumpets,  (most  palpably 
mere  subdivisions  of  the  seventh  seal  and  growing  out  of  it,)  are  entirely 
separated  from  it,  and  unitedly  converted  into  a  syllabus  of  Roman  civil 
history,  ancient  and  modern.  If  tliis  be  not  deducere  aliquid  ex  aliquo,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  produce  an  example  of  such  a  process. 

I  might  add  to  these  instances  of  speculative  exegesis,  that  of  Bossuet,  the 
distinguished  Prelate  of  Meaux;  who  finds  the  great  catastrophe  of  the 
Apocalypse,  in  the  conquest  of  heathen  Rome  by  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths. 

I  have  selected  only  a  few  examples,  taken  from  the  works  of  highly  dis- 
tinguished and  gifted  men, — men  who  thought  for  themselves,  and  were  no 
mere  satellites  of  larger  planets.  The  reader,  therefore,  can  now  judge  for 
himself,  whether  I  have  with  good  reason  cautioned  Ijim  against  minute  his- 
torical exegesis,  and  protested  against  converting  the  Epopee  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, into  a  syllabus  of  Jewish,  Roman,  or  even  ecclesiastical  history. 
The  nature  of  the  production  will  no  more  bear  it,  than  Ps.  xviii,  or  Is. 
xiv,  or  Is.  xxi,  or  Ezek.  xxxix,  will  bear  it.  Besides,  if  Wetstein's  ox^/f^cc 
is  a  correct  one,  then  Herder's  is  not ;  if  either  of  these  be  true,  tlien  must 
the  scheme  of  Mede  be  visionary ;  and  if  either  of  those  three  be  well 
grounded,  then  of  course  the  claims  of  Viti'inga  are  altogether  unsupported. 
Indeed  the  same  thing  might  be  said  in  respect  to  some  scores  of  other  in- 
terpretations, brought  before  the  world  with  equal  confidence  on  the  part  of 
their  authors,  and  with  as  little  or  even  less  ground  for  making  any  fair 
claim  to  confidence  on  our  part. 

But  to  examine  all  of  these  diflJerent  hypotheses  in  detail,  or  even  to 
biing  them  here  to  the  view  of  the  reader,  would  be  a  useless  task ;  for  in 
most  of  them  imagination,  and  fancy,  and  unlimited  conjecture,  and  dreamy 
resemblances,  are  substituted  for  the  patient  study  of  the  pro]}hetic  Scrip- 
tures, and  for  reasoning  founded  on  the  nature  of  symbol  and  allegory  and 
metaphor  as  enjployed  by  prophets  and  sacred  poets.  When  all  other 
books  of  Scripture  have  a  ivhy  and  a  wherefore;  when  all  of  them  can  be 
demonstrably  shown  to  have  arisen  from  the  wants  of  the  church,  and  the 
exigencies  of  the  times,  and  to  have  been  ada[)ted  to  these  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  be  practically  useful — why  should  the  Apocalypse  alone  be  ex- 
empted from  the  like  conditions?  If  this  book  had  its  origin  in  the  distress- 
es and  dangers  of  persecution,  and  was  designed  to  cheer  the  constant  and 
faithful  servants  of  God  with  bright  prospects  of  the  future,  and  to  incul- 
cate lessons  of  patience  upon  them — and  all  this  lies  upon  the  very  face  of 
the  book — then  it  must  be  true,  that  to  intelligent  readers  of  that  period 
Avhen  it  was  written,  it  was  intelligible ;  else  it  could  inculcate  no  lessons  of 
patience,  nor  inspire  any  cheering  hopes,  amid  the  distresses  of  the  times. 
IIow  now  could  either  of  these  great  ends  be  accomplished  in  any  tolera- 
ble manner,  by  a  mere  syllabus  of  Jewish  or  of  Roman  civil  history  ? 

A  better  era  in  the  criticism  of  the  Apocalypse,  than  the  one  from  which 
I  have  selected  some  leading  and  eminent  specimens,  we  may  hope  is  now 


FIRST  SEAL  :    ClIAP.  VI.  1.  161 

dawninp.  Day-liglit  will  come  nt  Inst,  in  spite  of  cloiuls  and  storms  wliich 
may  liavc  long  continued  to  retard  it.  The  sober  rules  of  criticism,  being 
founded  in  the  vi'ry  nature  of  rational  beings,  must  sooner  or  later  make 
their  voice  to  be  iieard.  It  may  be  drowned  and  lost  for  a  while,  amid 
clamour  and  violence,  liut  these  are  temporary  storms.  Truth  is  eternal. 
Opinionum  comiitentu  ddd  dus.  The  churcli  may  hope,  that  at  some  future 
day,  if  nor  at  present,  the  Apocalypse,  will  stand  before  it  in  unclouded 
beauty  and  jxlory. 

1  will  only  add  here,  that  if  we  overlook  all  the  palpable  demonstrations 
of  desitrn,  of  unity,  and  of  concinnity  in  the  Apocalyjjsc,  and  make  it  a 
book  of  disconnected  J'rasrments,  we  only  show  that  we  do  not  well  under- 
stand the  leading  elements  of  this  composition.  In  such  a  case  we  are 
liable  to  make  (i'm///(nis-,.or  else  jJo//iJrJg-,  out  of  the  book,  just  according  to 
the  leader  or  the  scheme  under  whom  or  which  we  hap])en  to  enlist.  In 
such  a  condition  we  must  fairly  abandon  all  hope  of  real  symmetiy,  con- 
gi-uity  of  representation,  or  unity  of  ])urpose,  in  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  when 
these  are  all  abandoned,  how  can  the  book  be  wortliy  of  our  labours  or 
even  of  our  notice  ? 


FIRST  FOUR  SEALS :  CHAP.  VI.  1—8. 

[After  the  introductory  remarks  made  above,  we  may  now  advance  to  the 
opening  scene.  The  first  four  seals  indicate  the  assembling  and  preparing  of  an 
awful  array,  commissioned  against  tlie  enemies  of  the  cliurch.  Wlio  can  stand 
before  it?  A  mighty  conqueror,  bedecked  with  the  emblems  of  victory,  leads  on 
the  hosts  of  destruction.  Tliese  hosts,  armed  with  deadly  weapons,  follow  him. 
Then,  in  the  train,  comes  famine,  commissioned  against  the  enemy  ;  and  in  the 
rear  of  famine,  march  Death  and  Hades,  the  allied  tyrants  of  the  under-world  ; 
while  the  ravenous  beasts  of  the  earth,  waiting  to  devour  the  corpses  of  the  slain 
close  this  terrific  procession.  Such  is  the  first  scene,  which  the  text  now  before 
us  presents  to  view.] 

(1)  And  I  looked,  when  the  Lamb  opened  one  of  the  seven  seals,  and  I  heard 
one  of  the  four  living  creatures  saying,  like  a  voice  of  thunder  :   Come. 

Miav  is  rendered  by  some,  the  first,  like  inx ,  which  in  Hebrew  is 
used  both  as  a  cardinal  and  an  ordinal  number  (Heb.  Gramni.  §  39 G)  ; 
or  it  may  possibly  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  the  Greek  in  such  a  con- 
nection as  tig,  allog,  tntroq,  etc.  But  the  want  of  the  article  here  is  a 
decisive  reason  against  this  rendering.  The  nature  of  the  case,  howev- 
er, makes  it  impossible  for  the  reader  to  mistake  the  meaning. 

MUcv  ix  and  hog  ix,  instead  of  the  simple  Gen.  in  regimen  ;  an  id- 
iom very  common  in  the  N.  Testament,  and  not  uncommon,  at  lea.'^t  the 
like  of  it,  in  the  classics.  The  source  from  which  the  individujd  thing 
mentioned  is  derived,  or  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  is  marked  more 
specifically  by  ix.  See  Rob.  Lex.  ex.  3.  h.,  and  Winer's  N.  Test. 
Gramm.  §  5.5.  1.  c.     See  hke  cla.ssic  usage  in  Kijhn.  XL  §  599.  3.  o. 

TeaactQoiv  i^wmv  are  here  represented,  and  also  elsewhere  as  rational 


152  FIRST  SEAL  :  Chap.  VI.  2. 

beings.  The  office  which  they  are  said  to  perform,  seems  to  render 
such  a  view  necessary  in  order  to  preserve  congruity.  On  this  occasion 
one  of  the  Hving  creatures  is  represented  as  addressing  John,  in  order 
to  render  the  whole  scene  peculiarly  solemn  and  impressive. — 'i2g  (po3vi^ 
Nom.  for  which  some  copies  have  q)0}vy,  and  .some  cfavr^g,  in  order  to 
make  an  appropriate  case  for  the  prefixing  of  hy  or  with.  But  the  con- 
struction with  the  Nom.  cpcov/j  imitates  the  Hebrew,  whex'e  3  (=  cog) 
prefixed  to  a  noun  forms  a  separate  and  as  it  were  independent  clause, 
which  has  its  own  appropriate  construction,  either  expressed  or  under- 
stood. So  here,  and  often  in  the  Apocalypse.  The  subordinate  sen- 
tence filled  put  would  be  :  cog  cfcorrj  QQovrijg  li'ysi.  A  somewhat  differ- 
ent construction,  and  one  more  conformed  to  the  usual  Greek  idiom, 
may  be  found  in  Rev.  2:  18.  9:  8.  But  generally  in  the  Apocalypse, 
the  construction  with  cog  is,  in  such  turns  of  expression,  like  that  above. 
"Eq^ov  y.cd  i'de.  So  the  vulgate  text ;  and  with  good  probability.  So 
some  of  the  critical  editions ;  but  I  have  followed  Hahn,  as  usual,  in  my 
version.  For  an  illustration  of  this,  Eichhorn  refers  to  Ezekiel  8:  9  ; 
which,  however,  is  quite  of  a  different  tenor  from  the  expression  here. 
No  other  explanation  is  needed  than  to  say,  that  it  is  the  language  of 
special  invitation  to  consider  attentively  what  is  about  to  be  developed. 
"Eq-/iov  is  language  naturally  addressed  to  one  at  a  distance,  whose  near- 
er presence  and  particular  inspection  are  requested.  Whether  John, 
after  this  address,  is  to  be  conceived  of  in  the  present  case  as  actu- 
ally advancing  from  his  previous  station,  is  of  no  moment.  His  spe- 
cial attention  is  solemnly  urged. 

(2)  And  I  looked,  and  behold  a  white  horse,  and  he  who  sat  upon  him  held  a 
bow;  and  to  him  a  crown  was  given,  and  he  went  forth  as  a  conqueror,  and  that 
he  might  conquer. 

To  understand  the  nature  of  the  imagery  or  symbol  of  horses,  here 
and  in  the  sequel,  the  reader  must  compare  Zech.  6:  1  seq.,  where  he 
will  find  the  prototype.  There,  the  four  horses  and  chariots  are  sent 
forth  into  all  the  earth,  in  order  to  survey  and  make  report  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  nations.  The  colours  there,  moreover,  are  red,  black,  white, 
and  spotted,  (vs.  2,  3).  Here  the  respective  horses,  whose  various  colours 
are  symbolic,  (in  Zech.  perhaps  the  colours  are  merely  of  an  ornamen- 
tal nature,  or  for  the  sake  of  distinction),  are  placed  at  the  head  of  each 
constituent  part  of  the  army  which  is  summoned.  This  is  in  accordance 
with  the  usual  style  of  forming  battle-array. — "innog  Xevxog,  an  emblem 
of  victory,  and  appropriate  to  a  conqueror.  Leaders  of  armies  frequent- 
ly rode  on  horses  of  this  colour ;  Sil.  Ital.  IV.  218.  Herod.  IX.  62. 
Servius  ad  Aen.  537,  Oandore  nivali,  hoc  ad  victoriae  omen  pertinet. 
Particularly  did  victors  use  them  in  a  triumphal  procession ;  Sen.  De 
Ira,  III.  21.  Virg.  Aen.  III.  537,  comp.  Apoc.  19:  11. 


SECOND  SEAL  :  Chap.  VI.  3,  4.  153 

2iTf cfavoii  in  this  case  means  a  tritimphal  crotv7i,  i.  e.  the  diadem  of 
victory ;  and  so,  in  conjunction  with  the  precedin^r  images,  denotes  vic- 
tory  or  conquest.  The  rotov  was  a  common  emblem  of  a  victorious  war- 
rior, among  the  ancients  ;  particularly  among  nations  where  the  bow 
was  much  employed,  e.  g.  among  the  Parthians,  as  is  manifest  by  their 
coins. 

Thus  equipped,  this  leader  of  the  van  goes  forth  vrAuiv,  i.  e.  bearing 
the  insignia  of  a  conqueror,  not  here  in  the  sense  of  victoriis  assuetus, 
as  some  render  it,  A'lxcjy  here  expresses  the  condition,  state,  or  ap- 
pearance of  the  individual  upon  the  white  horse,  as  expressed  in  the 
version  above.  The  next  clause  gives  the  object  of  his  going  forth,  viz. 
ira  fixijui;,  that  he  might  conquer,  i.  e.  subdue  the  enemy  against  whom 
he  is  commissioned,  but  who  are  not  yet  named.  "E'/^oav,  had,  part,  for 
a  verb,  see  Vol.  I.  §  15,  p.  242  seq. 

Are  we  to  regard  the  opening  of  the  seal  as  disclosing  to  the  eye  of 
John  a  picture  of  the  kind  just  represented,  drawn  upon  the  pages  of 
the  book  ?  Or  does  he,  when  the  first  seal  is  broken,  hear  the  contents 
read,  or  read  them  himself?  Nothing  is  said  which  decides  for  the  latter. 
Ai"e  the  written  contents,  then,  presented  to  the  eye  of  John  by  symbols 
which  have  the  same  significancy  as  the  written  pages  of  the  book  ? 
The  latter  seems  to  be  the  case,  for  the  symbols  are  described,  e.  g.  the 
white  horse,  the  red  horse,  etc.  Pictures  drawn  on  the  pages  of  the  book 
and  inspected  by  John,  can  hardly  be  supposed  ;  because  there  ai'e  parts 
of  the  vision  where  this  would  be  impossible.  It  is  more  congi'uous, 
therefore,  to  suppose  that  the  eye  of  John  beholds  the  symbols,  on  the 
arena  of  the  heavenly  w^orld,  of  what  the  book  contains.  In  this  way, 
the  Apocalyptist  is  taught  what  the  sealed  book  contains,  rather  than  by 
reading  it,  or  by  inspecting  pictorial  representations  drawn  upon  its 
pages.  It  should  also  be  noted  here,  that  the  conqueror  in  this  case  is 
not  the  Lamb  himself,  as  in  19:  11,  but  the  Generalissimo  (so  to  speak) 
of  the  invading  army.  The  Lamb  evidently  remains  in  his  antecedent 
position,  in  order  to  break  the  remainder  of  the  seals. 

(3)  And  when  he  had  opened  the  second  seal,  1  heard  the  second  living  crea- 
ture say  :  Come  ! 

"Eq/ov  xai  pJne  is  the  vulgate  text  here.  But  the  weight  of  Mss. 
is  against  the  last  two  words ;  and  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Apocalypse 
also  omits  them.     They  are  not  necessary  to  the  sense. 

(4)  And  another  horse  that  was  red  went  forth  ;  and  to  him  who  sat  upon  it — 
to  him  it  was  given  to  take  away  peace  from  tlie  land,  and  that  [men]  should  slay 
each  other;  and  a  great  sword  was  given  to  him. 

The  red  horse  is  a  symbol  of  blood  to  be  shed. — yivroi,  referring  to 
r<p  xu&eftt'vo),  and  inserted  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  perspicuity ; 
Gramm.  §  121 — i.  Note  4. — Ja^eTv,  to  take  away;  so  lufi^uroo  and  the 

VOL.  II.  20 


154  THIRD  seal:  Chap.  VI.  5,  6. 

Heb.  k'^3  not  unfrequently  mean  ;  Matt.  5:  40.  Rev.  3:  11.  Dan.  1: 16. 
Ezek.  29:  19.  Mic.  2:  2.  Besides,  it  is  strengthened  here  by  the  ta 
which  follows. — EiQtjvt]v,  quiet,  peaceful,  secure  condition  here,  in  oppo- 
sition to  one  of  danger  and  blood-shed. — rijg,  like  the  Heb.  y^i^',  is 
more  or  less  extensive,  as  the  nature  of  the  context  demands.  Here, 
not  the  whole  earth,  but  the  land  of  Palestine  is  specially  denoted. 

Kul  Ivu  x.  z.  X.  Here  is  an  instance  of  the  oratio  variata  ;  see  N. 
Test.  Gramm.  §  196.  The  construction  commences  with  ido&ij  avT(^ 
Xa^Eiv,  and  then,  in  the  second  member,  goes  on  with  [^ido&t]  avzo)^ 
Iva  dXh'jlovg  aqu^cooi,  i.  e.  [he  was  commissioned  to  cause]  that  the  in- 
habitants of  the  land  should  embroil  themselves  in  civil  war  and  mutual 
slaughter.  Similar  variations  of  construction  are  common  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  also  in  the  classics. — ])'Iu)[^aiQa  [AeydXi],  lit.  a  large 
slaughter-knife  ;  but  often  it  is  put  for  any  sharp-edged  weapon  used  in 
battle,  as  a  seymitar,  sword,  cutlass,  etc.  All  these  are  unequivocal 
symbols  of  slaughter,  i.  e.  of  war.  In  other  words  they  signify  that  by 
war  or  slaughter  the  power  of  the  adversary  is  to  be  weakened. 

(5)  And  when  lie  opened  the  third  seal,  1  heard  the  third  living  creature  say  : 
Come  !  And  I  looked,  and  behold  a  black  horse,  and  he  who  sal  upon  it  had  a 
pair  of  balances  in  his  hand. 

"innog  utlag,  a  black  horse.  The  choice  of  an  appropriate  colour  here 
was  more  difficult  than  in  any  of  the  other  cases.  Indeed  a  colour  strict- 
ly appropriate  for  the  designation  of  famine,  could  not  well  be  found. 
But  black  is  the  colour  indicative  of  distress,  misfortune,  or  mourning, 
in  general ;  consequently  it  comes  as  near  to  appropriate  significancy 
here  as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  admit. — "E)[0}v  as  in  v.  2,  i.  e.  em- 
ployed as  a  verb.  Zvyov  properly  means  the  yoke  or  beam  (as  we  say) 
of  a  balance  or  pair  of  scales.  The  later  Greeks  called  the  whole  ap- 
paratus, ^vyoGzu&fiog. 

The  object  symbolized  by  the  black  horse  and  the  balance,  is  too  in- 
definite in  itself  not  to  need  some  explanation ;  for  otherwise  various 
interpretations,  with  almost  equal  probability,  might  be  put  upon  the 
expressions.     The  sequel  gives  us  the  clue. 

(6)  And  1  heard  a  voice  in  the  midst  of  the  four  living  creatures  saying  :  A 
measure  of  wheat  for  a  penny,  and  three  measures  of  barley  for  a  penny  ;  and  the 
oil  and  wine  thou  must  not  injure. 

It  is  not  the  voice  of  one  of  the  living  creatures,  which  is  now  heard ; 
but  a  voice  Iv  [itacp  avzwv.  This  of  course  appears  to  mean,  the  voice 
of  him  who  sat  upon  the  throne  which  was  borne  up  by  the  ^aJ«. 

Xolvi^,  an  Attic  name  of  a  species  of  dry  measure  =  ^  of  a  Roman 
modius,  and  nearly  equal  to  one  quart  of  our  English  measure.  It  was 
the  ordinary  daily  allowance  for  the  sustenance  of  a  man ;  Odyss.  XIX. 


THIRD  seal:  Chap.  \^.  6.  155 

27,  28.  Athen.  III.  20.  Herod.  VII.  231.  Xen.  Anab.  I.  5,  0  ;  see  an 
abundance  of  examples  in  Wetstein,  in  lot*.  Tiie  dearness  of  the  price 
of  grain,  according  to  this  statement,  is  easily  seen.  A  penny  (di,vdQioi>) 
was  the  usual  price  of  a  day's  labour,  Matt.  20:  2,  i).  A  x^^"'^  was  the 
48th  part  of  an  Attic  medimnus  of  grain,  and  the  ordinary  price  of  this 
was  fire  or  six  denarii,  Of  course,  the  usual  price  of  a  x^'^'''^  ^^  wheat 
was  only  about  i  of  a  denarius ;  so  that  the  price  becomes  advanced,  in 
the  present  case,  to  eight  times  the  usual  cost.  As  the  statement  of  the 
text  now  is,  a  man  could  earn  only  his  own  [tersonal  subsistence  by  his 
labours ;  and  consequently  his  family  are  left  unprovided  tor. 

KniOFj^',  barley,  as  it  would  seem  by  this,  bore  only  one-third  of  the 
price  of  wheat.  It  was  raised  in  gi'eater  plenty  than  wheat,  and  was 
regarded  as  being  much  inferior  to  it. 

To  fhtior  .  .  .  ftij  rt^fx//(Tf(S',  a  difficult,  if  not  as  yet  an  inexplicable 
clause.  Eichhorn  indeed  adopts  a  very  easy  method  of  interpretation : 
"  Positio  mere  ornans."  Yet  I  scarcely  know  a  writer  leas  addicted  to 
positiones  mere  ornantes,  than  John  in  the  Apocalypse.  lie  remarks, 
however,  that  *  a  scarcity  of  oil  and  wine  would  contribute  nothing  to- 
ward creating  a  famine  ;'  a  position  not  less  strange  than  the  other.  Is 
not  olive  oil  (which  is  doubtless  here  meant),  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
of  substances  ?  And  would  wine  contribute  nothing  to  the  sustenance 
and  comfort  of  those  who  were  undergoing  starvation  ?  Ewald  says, 
that  the  loss  of  the  substantial  articles  of  food  would  only  be  aggravated 
by  the  presence  of  luxuries ;  and  so  this,  he  thinks,  is  "  apte  dictum," 
in  order  that  the  picture  of  distress  may  be  heightened.  This  at  best  is 
but  a  small  emendation  of  the  positio  mere  ornans  of  Eichhorn.  Vi- 
tringa  thinks  that  the  caution  (f//)  ddixt'jotjg)  is  addressed,  not  to  him  who 
sits  upon  the  black  horse,  but  to  those  who  were  inclined  to  be  prodigal 
of  luxuries,  or  careless  as  to  the  destruction  of  the  crops  of  wine  and 
oil ;  a  construction  which,  if  the  text  will  bear  it,  would  clearly  make 
out  a  meaning  quite  congruous  with  the  context.  Some  other  commen- 
tators also,  with  views  substantially  the  same  as  his,  have  regarded  [iri 
(id t •/.)]() ijg  X.  T.  X.,  as  a  caution  to  take  the  best  possible  care  of  the  oil 
and  the  wine,  because  they  were  about  to  be  much  needed.  This  gives 
a  like  congruous  sense. — That  the  second  pers.  singular  only  is  employ- 
ed, in  the  address,  is  no  serious  objection  to  this,  because  any  collective 
body  of  men  may  be  addressed  in  this  way,  as  they  often  are  in  the 
prophets.  The  energ}'  of  expression  is  heightened,  by  thus  individual- 
izing. 

"What  seems  strange  is,  that  the  mass  of  interpreters  "  sicco  pede  earn 
sententiam  praetereunt,"  just  as  though  no  explanation  were  needed. 
Some  indeed  have  expressed  the  apprehension  that  the  word  ddixZ/arji; 
(to  act  unjustly)  is  not  applicable  to  oil  and  wine  ;  but  the  classic  pas- 


156  FOURTH  SEAL :   Chap.  VI.  7,  8. 

sages  cited  by  Wetstein  in  loc.  show  that  this  verb  is  not  unfrequently 
used  in  the  sense  of  (Hunrstv,  i.  e.  to  injure.  Amid  this  variety  of 
opinion,  we  may  still  regard  the  command  not  to  injure  the  oil  and  the 
wine,  (in  form  a  litotes),  as  intended  to  show  the  need  there  will  be  of 
these  substances  in  order  to  support  life  ;  so  great  will  be  the  scarcity  of 
bread.  In  substance  this  is  Vitringa's  view  of  the  matter.  In  other 
words :  '  Instead  of  being  able  to  support  life  with  the  ordinary  element 
of  bread,  that  which  was  before  regarded  merely  as  a  luxury,  will  now 
become  a  necessary  of  life.'  Yet  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  the  pic- 
ture, even  when  viewed  in  this  light,  does  not  seem,  at  first,  to  be  one  of 
very  high  colouring,  i.  e  extreme  famine  does  not  seem  to  be  denoted  by 
it ;  for  apparently,  only  the  necessaries  for  daily  sustenance  are  supposed 
to  be  very  scarce  and  excessively  dear.  Oil  and  wine  might  be  laid  up 
and  preserved  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  ;  so  that  even  when  the 
crops  of  grain  should  fail,  through  drought  or  other  causes,  and  thus  be- 
come exceedingly  scarce,  the  oil  and  wine  might  still  be  resorted  to. 
That  they  would  be  mtich  needed,  however,  seems  to  be  plainly  implied 
in  the  direction  :  nij  dStxtjorj^'.  Why  not  hurt  them  ?  Plainly  because 
life  will  depend  on  them.  I  do  not  see  any  way,  at  present,  in  which  a 
more  appropriate  explanation  can  be  given.* 

(7,  8)  And  when  he  opened  the  fourth  seal,  I  heard  the  fourth  living  creature 
say:  Come  !  And  I  looked,  and  behold  a  pale  horse,  and  the  name  of  him  who  sat 
upon  it  was  Death,  and  Hades  followed  after  him.  And  there  was  given  him  power 
over  a  fourth  part  of  the  land,  to  slay  with  the  sword  and  with  famine  and  with 
pestilence,  and  by  the  wild  beasts  of  the  earth. 

"innoq  ;f  Aco^o?,  pcde  horse  ;  lit.  ^(koiQog  means  a  colour  like  that  of  a 
young  shoot  of  vegetation,  i.  e.  a  palish  green.  Evidently  a  hue  in- 
clining to  the  cadaverous  is  here  meant ;  as  the  sequel  shows. — 'Endvoj 
avTov  =  l^br .  In  vs.  2,  4,  5,  we  have  m  avrov,  which  is  in  confor- 
mity with  the  more  usual  Greek  idiom. — The  construction  of  this  and 

*  A  curious  suggestion  respecting  this  passage  is  made  by  the  venerable  Bede, 
as  quoted  by  Calovius  (Bib.  Illust.) ;  which  is,  that  *■  oil  is  for  the  sacrament  of 
unction,  and  wine  for  the  Lord's  supper,  and  therefore  they  were  not  to  be  injured.' 
But  was  not  bread  also  an  element  of  the  Lord's  supper  !  If  so,  why  should  not 
this  too  be  spared.' — There  is  another  suggestion,  which  at  least  may  have  an 
equal  claim  to  our  consideration,  viz.  that  oil  and  wine  were  commonly  used  for 
the  cure  of  wounds  (Luke  10:  34) ;  and  the  leader  or  angel-overseer  who  was  to 
superintend  the  faviine,  is  directed  to  spare  such  elements  as  would  be  needed  in 
order  to  aid  those  who  would  be  wounded  by  the  angel  of  the  second  seal.  A 
sufficient  objection  to  this  is,  that  an  alleviation  of  suffering  is  thus  provided  for; 
which  seems  to  be  contrary  to  the  general  tenor  and  design  of  the  picture.  Still, 
if  viewed  simply  as  declaring  the  need  there  would  be  of  oil  and  wine,  it  might 
not  be  destitute  of  significancy,  although  such  a  mode  of  expressing  this  idea  is 
too  fanciful  to  be  admitted. 


FOURTH  SEAL :  Chap.  VI.  7,  8.  157 

the  next  clause  i:^  not  in  acconlance  with  the  most  rigid  rules  of  syntax  ; 
but  still,  it  is  not  very  unusual.  The  Greek  runs  thus  ;  As  to  him 
who  sat  upon  him — his  name  was  Death  ;  i.  e.  the  Nom.  absolute  intro- 
duces the  sentence.  This,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is  very  frequent  in 
Hebrew  and  in  its  kindred  languages,  and  common  in  all  parts  of  the  N. 
Testament,  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  97.  3,  and  comp.  §  121.  4.  Note  4. 
"Ovo(.ia  avTQ),  i.  e.  tiv  avrcp  =«  orofia  avzov. — o  duvatog,  with  the  ar- 
ticle ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  89.  7.  Qdvarog  simply  would  not  an- 
swer the  demand  of  the  sense  here  ;  for  the  name  was  not  d^dvarog 
(death  in  general),  but  o  d^dvazog,  death  by  way  of  eminence,  "  the 
king  of  terrors"  himself. 

0  ^(drjg  est  magna  umbrarum  caterva,  says  Ileinrichs  ;  and  he,  after 
Eichhorn,  appeals  to  Ps.  18:  4,  5,  (.5,  G).  49:  15.  Job  38:  17.  Better 
surely  would  be  Is.  1 4:  9.  That  adi^g  has  reference  to  the  world  of  the 
dead,  lit.  the  invisible  world,  the  under-world,  like  bisd ,  there  can  of 
course  be  no  doubt.  But  since,  in  the  present  ca.se,  personification  is 
intended  by  the  writer,  the  question  necessarily  comes  up :  Whether  he 
means  the  umbrae  here,  i.  e.  the  shades  or  ghosts  of  the  dead,  inhabit- 
ing the  under-world ;  or  whether  he  intends  to  designate  that  part  of 
the  under-world  who  were  associated  with  o  Qdvarog,  its  supposed  king, 
in  the  government  of  it,  and  who  were  (so  to  speak)  the  servants  or 
coadjutors  of  the  king  of  terrors,  and  therefore  were  imaginary  beings 
of  the  same  class  or  kind  mth  him,  and  not  merely  the  ghosts  of  depart- 
ed men  in  general.  That  the  associates  (so  to  name  them)  of  Qdvarog  are 
meant,  seems  probable  from  Rev.  20:  13,  where  it  is  said,  that  "  Death 
and  Hades  gave  up  the  dead  which  were  in  them,"  i.  e.  the  dead  held 
by  them,  were  raised  to  hfe.  How  could  Hades,  i.  e.  (according  to 
Heinrichs  and  others)  the  departed  spirits  or  umbrae  of  men,  be  said 
to  give  up  the  dead  which  were  in  it  ?  In  other  words :  How  could  the 
dead  themselves  give  up  the  dead  ?  Is  it  not  plain,  then,  that  the  co- 
adjutors of  Death,  or  the  Proceres  of  the  under-world,  are  here  desig- 
nated by  Hades  ?  If  so,  then  all  becomes  plain  and  easy  in  Rev.  20: 
13.  The  representation  amounts  to  this,  viz.  that  those  who  hold  and 
wield  the  dominion  of  the  under-world,  will  give  up  their  subjects  (i.  e. 
departed  or  dead  men),  and  yield  to  the  power  of  him  "  whose  voice 
can  burst  the  prison-house  of  death,"  and  "  who  has  the  keys  of  Hades 
and  of  Death,"  i.  e.  of  the  region  over  which  they  reign.  So  in  the 
passage  before  us  ;  it  is  not  the  umbrae  of  departed  men,  which  appear 
in  order  to  destroy  others,  (see  the  sequel  of  the  verse),  but  tlie  king 
of  the  under-world  and  his  coadjutors  who  unite  their  efforts  in  order  to 
people  their  domain.  In  accordance  with  this,  Sheol  is  represented  (in 
Is.  14:  9)  as  stirring  up  all  its  umbrae  to  advance  and  meet  and  insult 
the  king  of  Babylon,  who  has  just  arrived  among  them.     That  Hades 


15S  FOURTH  SEAL  :    ChAP.  VI.  8. 

and  Sheol  may  sometimes  mean  umbrae,  I  would  not  at  all  deny ;  but 
in  passages  such  as  I  have  now  cited,  we  are  obliged  to  seek  another 
shade  of  meaning,  in  case  we  would  preserve  any  good  degree  of  con- 
gruity. 

'H-Aolov&Ei  fiET  avtov.  The  Gen.  after  duolov&e'co,  with  fistd  before 
it,  (instead  of  the  Dat.  after  the  verb),  is  frequent  in  the  best  classics ; 
see  Lobeck  ad  Phryn.  p.  353  seq. — To  itraQtov,  the  fourth  part,  i.  e. 
a  considerable  part,  and  certainly  a  large  portion  to  be  destroyed  by 
only  inceptive  war,  famine,  and  pestilence.  We  are  to  call  to  mind 
here  that  this  is  only  uqxi]  (odi'vcov,  as  our  Saviour  speaks,  in  Matt.  24: 
8.  A  more  usual  designation,  in  like  cases,  is  to  rQt'rov,one  third  part ; 
see  Rev.  8:  7,  8,  9,  10,  12.  9:  15  al.  Traces  of  the  number  four,  used 
in  a  somewhat  similar  sense,  may  be  seen  in  the  phrases  :  "  Visiting  the 
iniquities  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  to  the  third  and  fourth  gen- 
eration ;"  "  in  the  fourth  year  the  fruit  shall  be  holy  ;"  the  four  king- 
doms, in  the  book  of  Daniel ;  the  four  chariots  in  Zechariah  ;  the  four 
nT'ri  in  Ezekiel  i,  and  the  four  ^wa  in  Rev.  iv,  etc.  In  the  passage 
before  us,  the  evident  design  of  the  writer  is,  to  select  a  smaller 
number  than  the  usual  one  third,  because  the  war  is  as  yet  only  in  its  in- 
cipient stages. 

The  commission  of  Death  is,  that  he  should  employ  the  agency  of 
those  who  preceded  him,  as  well  as  his  own,  in  destroying  the  enemy. 
He  is  directed  to  slay  by  the  sword  (see  the  second  seal),  by  famine 
(see  the  third  seal),  and  also  d-avdtq),  i.  e.  by  the  pestilence.  The  He- 
brew word  "i3'n ,  pestilence,  is  rendered  -&dvaTog  more  than  thirty  times 
by  the  Septuagint ;  and  xn'ra  in  Chaldee  and  in  Syriac  is  often  employ- 
ed in  such  a  sense.  The  nature  of  the  case  requires  such  a  meaning 
here,  for  clearly  one  of  the  instruments  to  be  employed  by  6  d^dvarog  is 
here  designated.  QdvaTog  may  therefore  be  rendered  deadly  disease  or 
pestilence  ;  which  is  an  appropriate  instrument  of  o  (ydvarog. 

'Tno  TMv  d^riQiwv  rijg  yijg,  wild  beasts,  following  in  the  train  of  a  deso- 
lating army,  destroy  the  wounded,  and  seize  on  the  defenceless  inhab- 
itants who  are  left.  This  last  characteristic,  joined  by  the  other  three, 
may  be  found  in  Ezek.  14:  21.  The  junction  of  sword,  famine  and 
pestilence,  is  common  in  the  prophets;  e.  g.  Jer.  14:  12.  21:  7.  24:  10. 
44:  13.  Ezek.  6:  11,  12.  5:  12  al.  That  famine  would  succeed  the 
ravages  of  a  conquering  army,  it  is  very  natural  to  suppose.  That  pes- 
tilence should  follow  in  the  train  of  slaughter  and  corrupted  dead  bodies, 
is  likewise  altogether  natural.  The  ravages  of  wild  beasts  are  a  matter 
of  course,  on  such  an  occasion,  in  countries  where  they  are  to  be  found. 
Thus  Homer,  at  the  very  beginning  of  his  Iliad,  presents  us  with  a  sim- 
ilar representation.  See  also  2  Kings  17:  26.  Ezek.  14:  21.  Thus  all 
these  scourges  are  here  united  in  one  fearful  train,  led  on  by  him  who 


MARTTKS'  SUPPLICATION :    ChAP.  VI.  9 — 11.  159 

is  crowned  as  victor  upon  the  white  horse,  which  is  at  once  the  emblem 

and  the  earnest  ot"  the  victories  to  be  Jichieved. 

I 
In  wljat  nianiRT  tlie  four  lirst  seals  have  been  expounded  by  some  distinguished 

interpreters,  tlie  reader  has  already  had  op|)orluiiily  to  see,  in  the  introductory 
remarks  to  this  ciiapter.  Let  him  now  compare  the  whole  picture,  thus  far,  with 
the  declarations  of  the  Saviour  as  exhibited  in  Matt.  ^4:  (J — ti.  How  can  any 
one  well  refrain  from  regarding  the  representation  of  John  here,  as  a  commen- 
tary upon  his  Master's  words?  And  if  they  are  so,  then  the  object  in  view  is 
neither  dithcult  nor  obscure.  The  wliole  scene  as  represented  in  heaven  before 
the  eye  of  the  seer,  is  a  symbol  of  what  is  to  take  place  on  earth,  when  Christ 
comes  "  to  avvnge  his  elect,  who  cry  unto  him  day  and  night."  The  dread  array, 
which  appears  in  heaven  to  John,  is  not  indeed  to  be  regarded  as  individually  and 
in  re  vera  (so  to  speak)  employed  in  the  destruction  of  the  enemies  of  Christian- 
ity ;  but  this  array  constitutes  the  symbols  of  instruments  which  would  be  em- 
ployed for  the  destruction  of  the  enemies  of  the  church.  We  are  not  to  inquire 
and  seek,  as  Wetstein,  Herder,  and  others  have  done,  after  specific  and  individual 
events  supposed  to  be  designated  by  each  symbol  itself,  and  by  every  attitude  and 
action  of  the  symbolic  agents  ;  for  to  identify  and  verify  these  would  be  out  of 
question.  We  are  merely  and  simply  to  deduce  from  the  whole,  that  war  with 
its  usual  accompaniments,  i.  e.  famine  and  plague  and  ravenous  beasts,  will  be 
commissioned  to  lay  waste  the  power  of  the  persecutors.  It  is  not  a  battle  in 
this  place  or  in  that,  during  this  year  or  that,  but  it  is  all  the  battles  and  all  the 
means  of  destruction,  which  are  here  designated.  Such  is  the  picture  which  the 
Saviour  himself  has  drawn,  in  Matt.  xxiv. ;  and  such  is  the  imitation  and  expan- 
sion of  it  in  Rev.  vi. 


MARTi^RS'  SUPPLICATION :  CHAP.  VI.  9—11. 

Nothing  is  more  common  than  for  the  leaders  of  armies,  on  the  eve  of  a  great 
battle,  to  present  before  the  soldiers  some  soul-stirring  view  of  the  wrongs  which 
they  and  their  country  have  suflered  from  the  enemy,  and  to  urge  them  on  by  a 
keen  sense  of  injury,  as  well  as  by  a  regard  to  justice  and  safely,  to  put  forth 
all  their  energies  in  the  approaching  contest.  A  well  adapted  address  of  such  a 
nature,  at  the  very  onset  of  battle,  has  often  achieved  an  unexpected  victory. 
Every  one  who  has  read  the  history  of  England's  achievments  in  war  will  re- 
member, that  the  greatest  naval  victory  ever  gained  by  that  nation,  was  aided,  if 
not  ensured,  by  the  signal  hoisted  upon  the  admiral's  flag-ship  when  moving  into 
the  line  of  battle:  Engla.vd  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty.  In  a  few 
hours,  the  enemy  were  no  more.  The  burst  of  enthusiasm  created  by  such  an 
ajipeal  may  be  felt,  but  never  can  be  adequately  described. 

Not  unlike  to  this  appears  to  be  the  scene  before  us.  The  awful  arra}-,  sym- 
bols of  the  work  of  destruction  about  to  be  accomplished,  have  been  summoned, 
have  taken  their  places,  and  formed  the  ranks  of  the  army.  Before  marching 
into  the  battle  their  ardour  is  now  to  be  excited.  In  accordance  with  the  impor- 
tant design  of  rousing  up  powerful  sympathies  on  such  an  occasion,  the  persecu- 
ted and  slaughtered  martyrs  are  presented,  lying  covered  with  blood  at  the  foot 
of  the  altar  where  they  have  been  sacrificed,  and  crying  aloud  to  the  God  of  jus- 
tice to  take  cognizance  of  tlieir  wronnfs  and  vindicate  their  cause.  Who  can 
wonder  that  heaven  and  earth  are  moved   at  the  cry,  and   that  he   who  sits  en- 


160  FIFTH  SEAL  :    ChAP.    VI.  9,  10. 

throned  above  manifests  in  a  conspicuous  manner  and  by  terrible  signs,  that  their 
complaint  is  heard,  and  tiiat  their  request  will  in  due  time  be  surely  granted?  vs. 

y— 11. 

Such  I  take  to  be  the  nature  of  the  scene  before  us;  and  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  any  adequate  parallel  of  it,  in  all  the  scenes  which  Epopee  presents. 
When  viewed  in  this  simple  light,  the  thrilling  interest  which  it  gives  to  the 
whole  exhibition,  is  not  to  be  mistaken.  Nor  should  it  be  said,  that  there  is  any 
incono-ruity  here.  Bleeding  souls  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  as  symbols  in  vision, 
are  no  incongruity.  The  Lamb  as  it  icere  slain,  in  Rev.  5:  6,  is  no  incongruity. 
In  vision  everything  assumes  form  and  shape,  as  if  it  were  material.  To  the 
umbrae  of  deceased  men,  all  the  ancients,  Hebrews  as  well  as  Gentiles,  assigned 
a  visible  shape.  Even  spirit  itself  was  regarded  by  the  ancients,  as  consisting  of 
the  most  subtile  and  attenuated  substance,  not  unlike  to  air.  Of  course,  if  re- 
garded in  this  light,  there  is  no  incongruity  in  the  picture  of  the  Apocalyptist. 
It  is  enough  for  its  vindication  to  say,  that  all  is  symbol.  It  teaches,  and  is  de- 
signed to  teach,  no  philosophy  about  the  nature  of  the  soul's  substance  ;  and  no 
deduction  can  be  made  from  it,  such  as  Tertullian  makes  (De  Anima),  in  favour 
of  a  material  soul.  It  is  an  instructive  vision;  and  it  would  be  as  apposite  to  un- 
dertake a  demonstration  that  the  trees  and  brambles  can  talk,  from  the  fable  of 
Jotham  (Judg.  9:  8  seq.),  as  it  would  to  undertake  the  proof  of  the  material  nature 
of  the  soul  from  the  representation  before  us.  It  would  also  be  as  proper  to 
charge  Jotham  with  incongruity,  as  to  bring  such  an  accusation  against  John. 

(9,  10)  And  when  he  opened  the  fifth  seal,  I  saw  under  the  altar  the  souls 
of  those  who  had  been  slain,  on  account  of  the  word  of  God,  and  on  account  of 
the  testimony  which  they  held  fast.  And  they  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  saying  : 
How  long,  O  Lord  holy  and  true,  dost  thou  not  judge,  nor  avenge  our  blood  on 
those  who  dwell  in  the  land  ! 

'Tnoxdrco  rov  &vGiaarriQiov,  i.  e.  at  the  foot  or  lower  part  of  the  altar, 
where  the  victim  was  laid  whose  blood  had  been  shed.  The  reader 
must  of  course  perceive,  that  God  is  here  presented  as  being  in  his 
upper  or  heavenly  temple,  (the  same  is  very  common  in  the  O.  Testa- 
ment), and  there  is  also  the  altar  in  question,  like  to  that  in  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem;  comp.  Heb.  8:  5. —  ^^'vyag  rav  n.  r.  X.  shows,  of  course, 
that  the  psychology  of  John  did  not  admit  the  extinction  of  the  soul  by 
the  death  of  the  body.  The  bleeding  victims  here  presented,  are  those 
which  had  been  sacrificed  on  the  altar  of  their  religion.  They  had 
been  slain  dia  rov  Xdyov  rov  &eov,  on  account  of  God's  holy  word,  i.  e. 
because  of  the  doctrines  which  it  taught  and  which  they  received  and 
maintained ;  but  specifically  on  account  of  the  fxaQrvQiav  tJv  ely^ov,  the 
testimony  [of  Jestis^  which  they  field  fast.  For  a  full  account  of  this 
phraseology,  see  Comm.  above  on  Rev.  1:  2.  The  passage  before  us 
is  so  plain  and  indubitable,  that  it  necessarily  casts  light  on  1:  2.  The 
only  difi'erence  between  them  is,  that  in  1:  2,  ifiQrvQijae  rov  Xoyov  .  .  . 
ri]V  fiaQzvQt'av  I.  X.  designates  a  teacher  of  Christianity,  whereas,  in  the 
case  before  us,  we  have  nixov  rov  Xoyov  .  .  .  ryv  (xuQrvQi'av,  who  held 
fast  the  word,  etc.     By  this  last  phrase  private  Christians  may  be  de- 


FIFTH  seal:  Chap.  VI.  10.  161 

signaled ;    and  in  the  present  case  such  appear  to  be  designedly  in- 
cluded. 

El^ov,  held  fast ;  see  Rob.  Lex.  sy^m,  d.  a.  This  is  a  frequent  sense 
of  the  word.  The  form  is  Imperf.  which  suits  the  meaning  here. 
That  the  martyrs  were  once  merely  in  possession  of  the  word,  etc., 
would  not  have  occasioned  their  death;  it  was  their  steadfast  adher- 
ence to  it,  which  caused  them  to  be  sacrificed  on  the  altar  of  religion. 

(v.  10)  yifyovrt'i,  i.  e.  li'vpfftJ  Xf'yovteg,  concord  ad  sensum,  the  souls 
in  this  case  being  those  of  the  martyrs. —  O  StanoTtjg  x.  r.  1,  Nom.  used 
for  the  Voc. ;  as  often  in  N.  Testament,  and  in  the  classics ;  Gramm. 
§  97.  3.  The  term  S^anoiiig  is  not  frequent  in  the  Greek  Scriptures, 
nvQiog  being  much  the  more  common  appellation,  when  the  idea  of 
Lord  or  blaster  is  to  be  designated.  In  Luke  2:  29  and  Acts  4:  24, 
however,  it  may  be  found  in  the  same  sense  as  here.  It  designates  God 
as  supreme  Governor  and  Master  of  all,  and  as  having  the  power  and 
the  right  to  vindicate  his  oppressed  servants. — "Ayiog,  holy ;  in  this 
case  hating  sin,  i.  e.  of  purer  eyes  than  to  look  on  the  iniquity  of  per- 
secutors with  inditierence. — JiXr^&ivog,  true  to  his  promises,  worthy  of 
credit  when  he  stands  pledged  to  punish  persecutors. 

Ov  -AQiviig,  dost  thou  not  judge,  or  dost  thou  forbear  judging,  i.  e.  dost 
thou  forbear  to  bring  to  trial,  or  to  condemn  the  enemies  of  the  church. 
The  verb  itself  is  generic,  and  therefore  may  signify  to  acquit  or  to 
condemn,  pro  exigentia  loci.  Here  it  might  be  interpreted  thus  :  How 
long  dost  thou  not  vindicate,  viz.  the  righteous.  The  difference  of 
meaning  in  the  whole  phrase,  in  this  case,  would  not  be  important. 
But  on  the  whole  I  prefer  the  other  meaning,  viz.,  that  of  bringing  to 
trial  or  condemning. — 'Exdixeig  .  .  .  utzo,  so  in  Luke  18:  3.  In  Rev. 
19:  2,  with  in.  In  all  these  cases  there  is  a  conformity  to  the  Hebrew 
•j-Q  0)53 ,  '(O  ttinn ;  see  Ges.  on  these  words,  u^tto  makes  the  persons  on 
whom  vengeance  is  to  be  taken  more  specific,  or  at  least  it  gives  more 
intensity  to  the  designation  of  them.  The  thing  to  be  avenged  (aifia) 
is  in  the  Accusative. 

Kazoiy.ovvTCJv  im  t^g  yijg,  exactly  corresponding  to  the  well  known 
Hebrew  y^.^i^  '^suJT' ,  the  meaning  of  which  may  be  general  or  particu- 
lar, just  as  the  context  requires.  The  Hebrews,  who  in  prose  used 
only  one  word  ()''^s)  for  earth,  country,  region,  etc.,  never  found  any 
difiiculty  in  this,  because  the  context  of  course  hmits  or  expands  it,  just 
as  the  case  may  require.  Ewald  here  takes  it  in  an  expanded  sense ; 
but  this  seems  to  be  "  travelling  out  of  the  record."  The  sequel  shows, 
that  the  Jewish  enemies  of  the  church  are  here  concerned.  The  blood, 
then,  which  had  been  shed  by  Jews,  and  particularly  in  Palestine,  is 
now  to  be  avenged ;  for  the  sequel  shows,  that  the  supplication  of  the 
martyrs  found  acceptance  and  would  be  answered. 

VOL.  n.  21 


162  FIFTH  seal:  Cuap.  VL  11. 

(11)  And  a  white  robe  was  given  to  each  of  them,  and  it  was  said  to  them, 
that  they  must  wait  yet  a  while,  until  their  fellow  servants  and  their  brethren 
should  be  completed,  who  must  be  slain,  even  as  they  [had  been]. 

'Exuarcp,  to  each  one,  emphatic,  showing  that  the  gift  of  the  white 
robe  was  bestowed  on  every  individual. — 2^zoXij  Xevyj],  see  on  3:  5.  The 
singular,  aroh],  is  here  used  in  a  distributive  sense. — 'Ennt'&i],  Avith 
short  penult ;  see  Buttm.  §  95,  Note  4,  and  under  eiTTHv  in  the  Cat.  of 
Irreg.  verbs. — JlvanavGavzui,  Aor.  I.  Subj.  Middle  ;  the  context  shows 
that  lonff  continued  waiting  is  not  designed,  so  that  the  Aor.  may  be 
here  employed.  Lachmann  reads :  uvunavaovrm. — "Ewg  TihjQOjdcoai 
is  in  several  Codices  read  tcog  TiXriQCoaovzai,  i.  e.  yoovov  avzav,  for  so 
those  who  introduced  this  reading  must  have  understood  the  passage.  I 
prefer  the  reading  nX^mdcooi,  Aor.  I.  Pass.  Subj. ;  and  to  this  may  be 
given  either  of  the  two  following  meanings,  viz.  (a)  Until  their  martyr- 
ed brethren  shoidd  complete  the  number  destined  on  the  part  of  heaven 
to  fall  in  this  manner,  see  Rob.  Lex.  nXijooco,  d,  y;  or  (b)  n).i]Q03{}(0(}i 
may  be  used  in  a  like  sense  with  rslsioai,  to  consummate  or  complete,  i.  e. 
to  advance  to  the  highest  state  of  happiness,  reward,  perfection,  or  glory ; 
comp.  ti-'Xeioi  and  ntnXijQconivot,  as  nearly  synonymous  in  Col.  4:  12.  As 
a  parallel  with  the  first  meaning.  Matt.  23:  32  may  be  consulted ;  for 
there  nhiQwaazf.  means  to  complete  that  which  was  yet  wanting,  in  order 
to  raise  iniquity  to  such  a  height  as  Avould  bring  down  immediate  pun- 
ishment. So  here,  to  be  completed  would  seem  to  mean,  that  the  num- 
ber of  martyrdoms  requisite  to  bring  down  final  excision  must  first  be 
completed,  before  the  pending  catastrophe  could  take  place.  This  is 
the  more  easy  and  obvious  sense,  and  is  not  without  parallels ;  comp. 
TzXi^Qco/xa  in  Rom.  11:  12,  and  TZETzhjocoy.i'vat  in  Rom.  15:  19.  Let  the 
reader  note  the  bearing  which  this  has  on  the  time  when  the  Apocalypse 
was  written.     The  persecution  that  was  raging,  was  yet  unfinished. 

Oi  Gvv8ovXoi  refers  to  those  yet  to  become  martyrs,  as  being  fellow- 
servants  of  Christ  with  those  already  martyred. — Ol  ddslffoi,  the  Chris- 
tian title  of  endearment. — Of  [xt'XXovreg  anoxztrv£6&ai,  who  were  speedily 
to  be  slain,  fisXlovreg  marking  the  Fut.  proximate. — ^^TioxTivveod^ai, 
Inf.  Pres.  for  anonzdveo&ai ;  the  form  in  the  text  seems  to  be  Aeolic, 
for  the  Aeolians  changed  u  into  £  before  a  liquid  {X,  /*,  *',  q),  and  then 
doubled  the  liquid  as  a  compensation.  See  Winer's  Gramm.  §  15,  un- 
der UTlOHTEiVa. 

The  answer  in  this  case  is  made  sufficiently  plain,  by  the  bestow- 
ment  of  the  robes  of  honour ;  comp.  Gen.  41:  42.  45:  22.  Esth.  6:  8,  9. 
Is.  3:  7.  Zech.  3:  5.  By  implication,  also,  is  the  request  considered  as 
being  granted  in  the  sequel ;  for  this  declares  merely  that  some  delay  is 
necessary,  before  their  wishes  can  be  fully  accomplished,  and  of  course 
thus  intimates  that  they  are  to  be  accomplished. 


SIXTH  seal:  Chap.  VI.  12.  168 

This  circumstance  of  delay  we  should  regard  with  poi-ticular  atteii' 
tion  ;  for  it  explains  the  ground  of  various  episodes  (if  we  may  so  name 
them),  which  are  seemingly  introduced  in  order  to  delay  the  final  com- 
pletion of  the  first  catastrophe.  The  writer,  by  such  a  plan,  has  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  admission  of  interesting  matter,  indirectly  con- 
nected with  his  main  design  and  yet  consistent  with  the  general  plan 
which  he  had  in  view.  Considerations  of  this  nature  have  hitherto 
been  scarcely  regarded  by  most  interpreters  of  the  Apocalypse ;  as 
every  one  will  see  who  is  conversant  with  the  commentaines  on  this 
book. 


SYMBOLS  OF  DESTRUCTION :  CHAP.  VI.  12—17. 

The  rest  of  chap,  vi,  viz.  vs.  12 — 17,  symbolizes  the  terrific  events  which  are 
to  follow.  On  the  opening  of  the  si.xth  seal  the  sun  and  the  moon  are  darkened  ; 
the  stars  fall  from  heaven  ;  the  heavens  themselves  are  rolled  away  by  a  mighty 
wind  (comp.  7:  1) ;  and  all  the  people  of  the  land  to  be  smitten,  are  filled  with 
terror  and  amazement,  and  fly  to  the  rocks  and  mountains  for  refuge  from  the 
dreaded  invasion  which  is  about  to  be  made.  Such  are  the  phenomena  immedi- 
ately after  the  opening  of  the  sixth  seal  ;  but  this  is  not  all  which  is  to  be  dis- 
closed by  this  opening.  Subsequent  events  will  be  noticed  in  their  proper 
places. 

(12)  And  I  looked,  when  he  opened  the  sixth  seal,  and  there  was  a  great  earth- 
quake, and  the  sun  became  black  as  sack-clolh  of  hair,  and  the  whole  moon  be- 
came like  blood  ; 

Nothing  is  more  frequent  in  the  Scripture  than  the  indication  of  great 
changes,  especially  great  calamities,  by  a  description  of  earthquakes, 
and  tempests,  and  eclipse  of  the  heavenly  luminaries,  or  the  mention  of 
their  bloody  asi)ect  occasioned  by  a  murky  atmosphere.  To  obtain  a 
full  view  of  this  usage,  the  reader  must  carefully  consult  Joel  2:  10.  2: 
30,  31  (in  Hebrew  3:  3,  4).  3:  15.  Is.  13:  10.  24:  23.  Ezek.  32:  7,  8. 
Is.  34:  4.  Amos  8:  9.  Is.  59:  9,  10.  Jer.  15:  9.  Is.  60:  20.  Comp.  Matt. 
24:  29.  Mark  13:  24,  25.  Luke  21:  25.  Acts  2:  19,  20.  In  this  last 
passage,  and  in  Joel  from  which  this  is  cited,  there  seems  to  be  merely 
an  indication  of  great  and  extraordinary  changes  ;  but  in  all  the  other 
passages  of  the  like  tenor,  the  careful  reader  will  perceive  at  once  that 
calamitous  events  are  indicated.  Every  one,,  who  knows  what  disasters 
the  ancients  connected  with  the  appearance  of  eclipses  and  of  changes 
in  the  heavenly  bodies,  will  easily  perceive  how  forcible  such  language 
must  be,  when  employed  to  designate  occurrences  yet  future.  An  at- 
tentive consideration  of  the  passages  referred  to  will  show,  moreover, 
that  calamities  of  every  kind,  such  as  are  actually  brought  about  by  lo- 
custs, war,  pestilence,  famine,  etc.,  are  symbolized  by  such  imagery  as 
the  text  presents.     Consequently,  unless  the  context  obliges  us  to  a  dif- 


164  SIXTH  seal:  Chap.  VI.  13. 

ferent  exegesis,  (which  is  not  the  case  here),  we  may  give  to  such  figu- 
rative language  a  generic  sense.  If  the  reader  wishes  for  examples  of 
specific  interpretation  in  the  present  case,  he  may  go  back  to  those  of 
Wetstcin,  Herder,  Mede,  and  Vitringa,  which  have  been  already  pro- 
duced in  the  introduction  to  this  chapter. 

2:eia[i6g  fisyag,  a  great  earthquake  ;  so  in  Matt.  24:  7,  in  describing 
the  calamities  which  precede  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  Saviour 
mentions,  along  with  wars  and  famine  and  pestilence,  earthquakes  also — 
Koi  aeiGixol  v.a.rk  Tonovg.  So  in  Luke  21:  11.  All  phenomena  of  such 
a  nature  were  anciently  regarded  with  great  terror,  as  being  the  evi- 
dences that  God  was  angry  and  was  about  to  punish. 

'O  r(kioq  tyhsro  fxiXug,  so  represented,  either  because  the  idea  of  to- 
tal eclipse  was  before  the  mind  of  the  writer,  or  else  the  obscuration  of 
the  sun  by  reason  of  the  smoke  and  gloomy  vapour  which  usually  suc- 
ceed an  earthquake. — 2^eX^vt]  .  .  .  cog  aifia,  which  is  the  colour  that 
usually  succeeds  an  eclipse ;  or  here  again,  the  image  may  be  that  of 
the  moon  reddened  by  the  dark  brown  vapour  which  succeeds  the  quak- 
ing of  the  earth.  In  both  cases,  explain  it  which  way  you  will,  the 
general  import  is  the  same.  In  all  ancient  ages  and  countries,  the  ob- 
scuration of  the  heavenly  bodies  filled  every  one  with  terror,  and  was 
regarded  as  betokening  evil  to  be  near. 

(13)  And  the  stars  of  heaven  fell  to  tlie  earth,  as  a  fig-tree  casts  down  her  un- 
timely figs,  when  shaken  by  a  violent  wind; 

Ol  acrfQeg  .  .  .  ttjv  yijv.  The  verb  msauv  here,  according  to  Winer, 
is  Aor.  II.  third  pers.  plur.,  Alexandrine  dialect,  which  often  declines 
Aor.  II.  like  Aor.  I. ;  see  his  Gramm.  §  13.  1.  But  the  later  Greek 
made  an  Aor  I.  in  msaa;  see  Kiihner,  §  176.  1.  Note  1.  The  image 
is  probable  that  of  the  so-called  falling  stars  or  meteors,  the  cause  of 
which  was  inexplicable  to  the  ancients,  and  so  was  looked  upon  with 
terror.  Pliny  speaks  of  it  in  his  account  of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
Epist.  VI.  20.  See  also  Lucan,  V.  562.  Serv.  ad  Virg.  Georg.  I.  36.5. 
The  idea  seems  to  be,  that  the  quaking  of  the  earth  also  moves  the 
heavens ;  see  Joel  2:  10,  where  these  are  united.  The  passage  of  the 
O.  Testament  immediately  before  the  mind  of  the  writer  appears  to  be 
that  in  Is.  34:  4,  "  All  the  host  of  heaven  shall  be  dissolved,  and  the 
heavens  shall  be  rolled  together  as  a  scroll,  and  their  host  shall  fall 
down ;"  or  perhaps  the  declaration  of  the  Saviour,  as  recorded  in  Matt. 
24:  29,  where  the  same  imagery  is  employed.  The  ancients  regarded 
the  stars  as  fixed  in  the  heavens,  which  last  were  looked  upon  as  a  solid 
expanse,  S"'!?'!.  When  shaken,  some  of  the  stars  were  loosed  ;  and  fall' 
ing  stars  were  so  named,  because  they  were  supposed  to  have  been 
loosened  from  the  firmament,  and  so  to  fall  upon  the  earth.    It  matters 


SIXTH  SEAL  :  Chap.  VL  14,  15.  165 

not  whether  tliesc  phenomena  were  rightly  or  wrongly  explained  by 
them,  in  a  philosophical  point  of  view.  The  popular  iisus  loqueiidi  in 
relation  to  all  such  subjects,  is  everywhere  adopted  by  the  sacred  wri- 
ters ;  for  they  do  not  undertake  to  teach  the  natural  sciences. 

'S2g  Gvxtj  ^uXXei,  etc.,  i.  e.  the  heavens,  being  shaken  by  the  grecU 
eartkqrtake,  let  fall  the  stars,  as  a  fig-tree  drops  its  untimely  fruit  when 
shaken,  etc. — X)Xvt0^ov^,  means  such  fruit  as  gi'ows  on  the  fig-tree  in  the 
winter,  seldom  matures,  and  easily  falls  off  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 

(14)  And  the  heaven  was  removed,  as  a  scroll  which  is  rolled  up;  and  every 
mountain  and  island  were  moved  from  their  places. 

The  Hebrews,  as  has  been  hinted  already,  conceived  of  the  heavens 
as  a  solid  expanse,  stretched  over  the  earth  like  a  curtain  or  tent ;  Ps. 
104:  2.  Is.  40:  22.  44:  24.  Jer.  10:  12.  Hence,  as  scrolls  were  an  ex- 
panded piece  of  parchment,  and  were  rolled  up  for  laying  aside,  so  the 
removal  of  the  heaven  in  this  case  is  designated  in  the  like  way.  A 
vehement  tempest  of  wind  is  of  course  to  be  supposed  here ;  for  this  is 
made  quite  plain  by  chap.  vii.  1.  By  this  tornado,  the  expanse  above 
is  to  be  regarded  as  swept  away. 

ndv  oQog  .  .  .  ixiv/jO-tjffav.  Such  are  the  consequences  of  the  great 
earthquake,  which  frequently  produces  the  like  effects,  sinking  some 
tracts  and  elevating  others  ;  comp.  Ps.  18:  7,  15.  The  imagery,  as  be- 
fore remarked,  may  be  found  in  Is.  34:  4 ;  comp.  Rev.  16:  20.  Amidst 
such  terrific  phenomena  as  these,  we  cannot  wonder  at  the  sequel : 

(15)  And  the  kings  of  the  land,  and  the  nobles,  and  the  captains  of  thousands, 
and  the  rich,  and  the  powerful,  and  every  servant  and  freeman,  hid  themselves 
in  the  caves  and  rocks  of  the  mountains. 

Ewald,  who  is  disposed  to  extend  the  meaning  of  chap.  vi.  to  Gen- 
tile persecutors  as  well  as  Jewish  ones,  acknowledges  that  here  is  a 
special  reference  to  the  peculiarities  of  Palestine,  as  to  its  rocks  and 
caves  which  afford  places  of  shelter  for  fugitives.  Compare  for  illus- 
tration. Judges  6:  2.  1  Sam.  22:  1.  Is.  2:  10,  19,  21.  Amos.  9:  3.  Still, 
this  is  not  exclusively  a  characteristic  of  Palestine  ;  and  I  should  rely  on 
chap.  vii.  with  much  more  confidence,  as  a  proof  that  the  Jev^s  are  the 
objects  now  before  the  writer's  mind,  than  on  a  circumstance  like  that 
just  mentioned.  The  writer  doubtless  had  in  his  view  the  passage  in 
Is.  2:  19,  21. 

Oi  ^uaiXtig  trig  yijg.  Strictly  speaking,  Agrippa  was  the  last  native 
king  of  Palestine,  in  the  appropriate  sense  of  that  word  ;  and  he  died 
some  years  before  the  Apocalypse  was  written.  Still,  others  exercised 
regal  power ;  and  Palestine  had  recently  been  divided  into  tetrarchieSy 
Luke  3:  1.  Hence  l^uaiXklg,  plur.,  is  used  as  a  comprehensive  word,  in 
order  to  designate  the  various  governors  or  viceroys  who  then  ruled  over 


166  SIXTH  SEAL  :  Chap.  VI.  16. 

the  country  of  Judea.  Its  use  here  is  poetic,  and  it  is  not  to  be  taken 
as  in  a  mere  civil  history.  That  kirigs  are  first  mentioned  on  the  hst  of 
persecutors,  is  natural,  if  we  consider  either  their  rank,  or  the  influence 
which  they  must  have  as  persecutors.  In  the  same  manner  do  we  find 
them  introduced  and  severely  denounced  in  the  book  of  Enoch,  48: 
7—11. 

Meytazaveg  xai  )^iliaQXOi  designates  civil  and  military  Praefects  or 
ofl[icers  of  high  rank.  Thus  in  Mark  6:  21,  "  Herod  made  a  feast  to  his 
IxeytaTCiVEi;  and  xiliaQ]^oi."  These  are  mentioned  next  to  kings,  because 
they  stand  next  to  them  in  point  of  rank,  XiliaQxOi;  is  not  always 
confined  in  its  signification  to  designate  merely  the  captain  of  a  thou- 
sand, as  the  name  etymologically  imports,  but  is  sometimes  employed, 
as  in  our  text,  for  the  designation  of  a  military  officer  of  the  higher  rank 
without  respect  to  the  numbers  whom  he  may  control. — -nXoixjioi,  those 
who  abound  in  wealth  ;  i'axvQoi,  men  of  power  or  influence  in  other  re-* 
spects.  In  a  military  description  it  would  mean,  men  powerfid  in  war, 
heroes  ;  but  being  here  coupled  with  ttXovgwi,  it  must  be  modified  and 
so  have  a  different  sense  assigned  to  it. 

riug  dovXog  y.ui  eXiv&eQog,  (so  is  the  text  in  Hahn),  is  designed  as  a 
comprehensive  expression,  i.  e.  to  include  all  of  every  rank  and  station  ; 
comp.  1  Cor.  12:  13.  Gal.  3:  28.  Ephes.  6:  8.  Rev.  13:  16.  19:  18. 

"ExQVXpav  .  ,  .  7(ov  oQtojy.  The  manner  of  expression  in  eig  ra.  ani]- 
Xaia  strikes  us,  at  first,  as  being  unusual ;  for  we  should  naturally  expect 
iv  Toig  anijlaloig.  But  here,  as  often  elsewhere  in  the  N.  Testament, 
and  in  the  classics,  some  verb  significant  of  coming  to,  or  entering  into, 
is  implied  before  the  verb  which  is  expressed ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  § 
113.  Note  2.  h.;  and  comp.  Matt.  2:  23,  £4'  nohv.  13:  9.  Luke  11:  7. 
John  9:  7.  Acts  7:  4.  8:  39,  40,  al.  saepe.  See  Rob.  Lex.  slg,  No.  4. 

(16)  And  they  say  to  the  mountains  and  to  the  rocks :  Fall  on  us,  and  hide  us 
from  the  face  of"  Him  who  sitteth  upon  the  throne,  and  from  the  wrath  of  the 
Lamb  ! 

AtyovGi,  Pi'es.  tense,  although  preceded  in  the  same  sentence  by  the 
Praeter ;  and  so,  often  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  other  Greek ;  see 
N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  136.  1.  b.  Note,  and  Winer,  §  41.  2.  b,  where  a  great 
number  of  examples  from  the  N.  Testament  and  the  Classics  is  exhib- 
ited. 

The  particular  expression  here,  nsasre  x.  r.  X.  may  be  found  for  sub- 
stance in  Hosea  10:  8.  Here,  and  in  our  text,  the  sentiment  is  :  '  Let 
us  perish  by  a  death  the  nature  of  which  we  understand,  rather  than  by 
the  awful  death  which  is  threatened,  the  agonies  of  which  we  do  not 
know.'  In  like  manner  Pliny  represents  some  of  the  fugitives  from  the 
fiery  shower  of  Vesuvius,  as  praying  for  death,  that  they  might  escape 


srxTH  Seal  :  Chap.  VI.  17.  167 

tlie  ijrnoous  (lolii£fe  of  the  mountain  :  "  Erant  qui  metu  mortis  mortem 
prt'cari'ntur  ;"  Ep.  G.  20.  The  wisli  expressed  in  the  text  may  be  nor- 
ther iUustrated,  by  a  reference  to  the  very  common  case  of  suicide  in 
prisons,  when  j^orsons  are  under  sentence  of  death,  or  expect  it  with  cer- 
tainty. Tlioy  thus  escape  a  more  horrible  death,  and  in  their  apprehen- 
sion a  more  disfrraceful  one,  by  an  exit  which  is  less  appalling.  So  in 
the  case  before  us ;  death  is  certain,  when  the  Lamb  is  angry  and 
pursues  his  enemies  with  judgments.  But  death  by  the  crushing 
power  of  the  rocks  and  mountains,  is  less  ten*ible  than  that  which 
threatens  them,  and  which  is  to  be  inflicted  by  the  power  of  the 
Lamb.  In  a  word ;  anxiety  and  distress  are  so  great,  that  any  change 
whatever  would  seem  to  promise  something  better.  After  all,  however, 
we  need  not  nicely  weigh  words  uttered,  like  these,  in  a  state  of  the 
highest  terror  and  agony.  We  might  well  compare  thein,  perhaps,  with 
the  words  of  Peter,  in  a  transfjort  of  mind  very  different  indeed  from 
that  here  described,  but  still  in  a  state  of  great  excitement,  Luke  5:  8. 
Matt.  17:  4.  That  John  seems  to  have  taken  the  expression  here  from 
the  declaration  of  the  Saviour  recorded  in  Luke  23:  30,  (which  again 
may  be  referred  to  Hosea  10:  8),  in  regard  to  a  subject  like  that  now 
before  us,  one  can  scarcely  fail  to  see  and  acknowledge. 

It  should  be  noted  here,  also,  that  those  who  thus  deprecate  the  wrath 
of  the  Lamb,  speak  as  if  they  knew  from  whom  these  judgments  came. 
They  are  conscious  that  he  inflicts  them.  Could  this  be  well  said  of 
heathen  Gentiles,  who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  Saviour  ?  I  mean  to 
ask  :  How  could  it  be  said  with  the  appearance  of  verisimilitude  ? 

"  He  who  sitteth  on  the  throne,  and  the  Lamb,"  are  distinguished 
here  agreeably  to  the  preceding  representations  in  chap.  iv.  v.  The  po- 
sition of  the  Lamb  there  described  appears  to  be  still  maintained  ;  and 
so  it  continues  to  be,  until  the  seals  are  all  unloosed. 

Jino  TTQoocoTiov  X.  r.  X.  They  could  bear  death  from  the  crushing 
power  of  the  rocks  and  mountains,  better  than  they  could  bear  the  look 
of  their  righteous  Judge  and  offended  Lord. 

(17)  For  the  great  day  of  liis  wrath  is  come,  and  who  is  able  to  stand? 

7/  ^eyuhj,  great  in  distinction  from  other  days,  when  ordinary  chas- 
tisements or  judgments  befel  them.  This  is  the  day  of  consummation. 
— 2^TUiyiji'ui,  to  stand  Jinn  or  fast,  i.  e.  to  endure  or  abide.  Conip.  Ps. 
1:  5.  76:  7.  130:  3.  147:  17.  Nuhum.  1:  G,  where  Tcy  is  used  in  the 
like  sense ;  and  so  the  Perf.  and  Aorists  of  tcrr////t  in  the  N.  Testament, 
see  Lex.  K  in  this  case  a  reference  was  made  by  the  mind  of  the 
writer  to  the  0.  Testament,  it  seems  to  have  been  to  Nah.  1:  G. 


168  SERVANTS  or  GOD  SEALED  :  ChAP.  VH. 


SEALING  OF  THE   SERVANTS  OF  GOD  :  CHAP.  VH. 

In  such  a  state  of  things,  while  the  whole  material  universe  is  in  commotion 
and  seems  to  be  on  the  verge  of  ruin,  there  is  danger  that  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked  may  be  involved  in  one  common  destruction.  What  is  to  be  done.'  The 
Saviour  has  promised  safety  to  his  disciples  amid  the  ruin  of  their  country ;  ex- 
cepting that  persecution  would  be  permitted  to  rage  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
until  that  ruin  was  accomplished ;  Matt.  24:  22,  31.  Mark  13:  27.  Luke  21:  28. 
That  promise  must  be  fulfilled.  The  time  of  destruction  is  now  near.  The  fear- 
ful commotion  of  the  elements  and  of  all  nature  is  plainly  indicative  of  this.  The 
destroying  angels  have  their  commission,  and  they  are  beginning  to  execute  it. 
But  that  the  elect  (Matt.  24:  22)  may  be  exempted  from  the  common  lot  of  the 
wicked,  some  sign  or  token  must  be  exhibited,  which,  like  the  blood  of  the  pas- 
chal lamb  upon  the  door-posts  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt,  will  be  an  indication  of 
the  will  of  heaven,  that  "the  destroyer  "  should  pass  by  and  leave  them  unharm- 
ed. In  order  that  this  may  be  accomplished,  the  tempest  which  was  shaking  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  is  hushed  to  peace.  An  angel,  bearing  the  seal  or  stamp 
of  the  living  God,  descends  to  impress  his  sacred  name  upon  the  followers  of  the 
Lamb,  and  thus  mark  them  as  his  property.  Out  of  every  tribe  these  followers 
are  selected.  One  common  safety  belongs  to  all.  The  gospel,  which  had  been 
preached  to  all,  admits  all  equally  to  avail  themselves  of  its  privileges.  They  re- 
ceive therefore  a  mark  of  safety  ;  and  then  the  countless  host  of  the  redeemed  in 
heaven,  with  palm-branches  of  victory  in  their  hands,  the  emblems  of  the  church's 
triumph,  unite  in  praising  God,  with  all  the  angels,  and  elders,  and  living  crea- 
tures. One  universal  symphony  fills  the  heavenly  world.  Among  this  countless 
host,  stand  conspicuous,  in  robes  of  white,  the  martyrs  who  have  sealed  their  tes 
timony  by  their  own  blood.  The  glory  to  which  they  are  destined  is  brought  dis- 
tinctly into  view,  in  order  that  persecuted  and  suffering  Christians,  then  '  endur- 
ing the  cross,'  might,  'on  account  of  the  joy  set  before  them,  despise  the  shame,' 
and  attain  at  last  to  the  same  blessedness. 

Such  are  the  contents  of  chap.  vii.  It  is  doubtless  to  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  an  episode;  but  still  it  contributes  much  to  the  beauty  and  interest  of  the 
principal  piece.  The  most  rigid  critic  could  not  have  any  desire  to  dispense 
with  it. 

(1)  And  after  these  things  I  saw  four  angels  standing  at  the  four  corners  of 
the  land,  holding  in  the  four  winds  of  the  land,  that  the  wind  might  not  blow 
upon  the  land,  nor  upon  the  sea,  nor  upon  any  tree. 

The  Hebrews  designated  hat  four  points  of  the  compass,  north,  south, 
east,  and  west.  The  wind  from  these  four  quarters  is  designated,  be- 
cause thus  all  winds  are  comprehended.  This  manner  of  designation, 
moreover,  may  have  reference  also  to  the  frequent  changing  and  shift- 
ing of  the  wind  in  violent  tornados.  So  in  Jer.  49:  36.  Dan.  7:  2, 
four  winds  are  designated  in  the  same  way  as  here,  viz.,  as  comprising 
all  winds  ;  and  the  like  elsewhere.  Angels  are  here  mentioned  as 
commissioned  to  guide  and  manage  these  elements.  That  this  is  a  Ub- 
liccd  idea,  the  reader  may  see  by  recurring  to  Exc.  I.  Good  Angels, 


SEnVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED  :    ChAI'.  VII.  2.  169 

Nos.  4.  ;■).  It  would  seem  that  the  same  angels  had  raised  the  tornado, 
(implied  in  the  preceding  chapter),  who  are  now  to  restrain  it.  To 
this  tornado,  also,  we  must  attribute  the  fearful  coramotion  described  in 
the  preceding  context,  vs.  12 — 14.* 

The  four  corners  of  the  earth  is  an  expression  which  has  its  basis  in 
the  Hebrew  view  of  things,  viz.  that  the  earth  was  an  extended  plain. 
The  four  corners  correspond  with  the  four  points  of  the  Hebrews  and 
therefore  designate  all  the  places  where  it  was  necessary  for  the  angels 
to  take  their  station,  in  order  to  have  complete  control  over  the  winds. — 
KofCTOvvTa'a',  hoUUiig,  controlliiif/,  i.  e.  in  the  present  case,  holding  in, 
restraining. 

I\Iij  nvt'ij  .  .  .  7TUV  dt'ylinnr,  i.  e.  that  it  might  everywhei*e  and  univer- 
sally be  calm,  so  that  not  even  the  leaves  of  the  trees  would  be  shaken. 
This  last  circumstance,  therefore,  viz.  im  nuv  Strdoov,  is  not  insignifi- 
cant. It  marks  the  intensity,  i.  e.  the  high  degree,  of  the  quietude. 
We  should  express  substantially  the  same  idea  by  saying :  It  was  so 
still,  that  there  was  not  a  ripple  upon  the  water — and  not  a  leaf  of  the 
trees  moved. 

(2)  And  I  saw  another  angel  ascending  from  the  rising  of  tlie  sun,  having  the 
seal  of  tlie  living  God  ;  and  he  cried  with  a  loud  voice  to  the  four  angels  to  wlioin 
it  was  given  to  hurt  the  land  and  the  sea ; 

^;t6  dvazoXijg  rjXiov,  i.  e.  from  the  east.     Why  the  east  ?     "  Quod 

*  No  one,  indeed,  can  well  estimate  the  nature  of  this  representation,  who  is 
unacquainted  with  the  common  opinions  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  respecting  the 
operation  and  power  of  the  winds.  In  the  book  of  Enoch,  we  have  views  of  a 
similar  nature  quite  fully  developed.  The  winds  are  kept  in  store  houses,  Enoch 
18:  1,  comp.  the  same  sentiment  in  Ps.  135:  7.  Jer.  10:  13.  51:  16,  and  see  also 
Prov.  30:  4.  In  Enoch  18:  4 — 6  it  is  said  :  "  1  beheld  the  winds  occupying  the  ex- 
alted sky ;.  arising  between  licaven  and  earth,  and  constituting  the  pillars  of  hea- 
ven. I  saw  the  winds  which  turn  the  sky,  which  cause  the  orb  of  the  sun  and 
all  the  stars  to  set ;  and  over  the  earth  I  saw  the  winds  which  support  the  clouds." 
He  then  adds  :  "  1  saw  the  path  of  the  angels,"  i.  e.  (as  I  understand  him)  of  those 
who  managed  these  winds.  So  again  in  71:  7  and  72:  2,  the  wind  is  mentioned 
as  occasioning  the  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  e.  g.  the  chariot  of  the  sun. 
In  chap.  Ixxv.  and  Ix.wi,  the  author  e.\patiates  at  large  on  the  influence  of  winds 
upon  all  the  phenomena  of  nature,  in  heaven  and  on  earth,  such  as  drought,  cold, 
heat,  hail,  snow,  dew,  blight,  health,  pestilence,  etc.  In  chap.  14:  0,  10,  he  re- 
presents the  winds  as  carrying  him  alofl  to  heaven,  etc.  In  these  and  the  like 
passages,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  times,  the  winds  are  presented  as 
the  most  powerful  and  universal  agent  in  nature;  even  as  sustaining  the  heavens, 
and  moving  the  planets  through  them.  No  wonder,  then,  that  John  here  pre- 
sents us  with  the  terrific  effects  of  the  tornado,  raised  by  angels  who  are  commis- 
sioned to  execute  the  work  of  destruction.  It  matters  not  whether  we  consider 
these  angels  as  the  ordinary  guardian  angels  of  the  winds,  (then  we  might  natu- 
rally expect  Tovt  flyyd?Mve},  or  whether  they  now  act  merely  by  special  commis- 
■ion.     The  consequences  of  their  interposition  are  the  same. 

VOL.  n.  22 


170  SERVANTS  OP  GOD  SEALED  :    ChAP.   VIL  3. 

oriens  locus  coeli  est  dignissimus,"  says  Eichhorn ;  and  Ewald  to  the 
same  purpose,  only  that  he  adds  :  "  It  is  the  special  dweUing-place  of 
the  Godhead."  Yet  in  Ezek.  1:  4,  the  theophany  is  exhibited  in  the 
north.  Job  37:  22  refers  perhaps  to  the  dweUing-place  of  God  in  the 
north :  "  Splendour  comes  from  the  north."  Greece,  Persia,  Babylon 
(Is.  14:  13),  and  Hindoostan,  all  place  the  residence  of  the  divinity  on 
some  lofty  mountain  in  the  north,  such  as  the  Thessalian  Olympus,  Al 
Bordj,  Meru,  etc.  Nor  do  I  recollect  any  passage  in  the  O.  Testament, 
which  refers  to  the  east  as  the  peculiar  dwelling-place  of  God.  Still, 
the  book  of  Enoch,  24:  2,  8,  represents  the  east  as  the  paradise  of  God, 
and  as  the  place  where  the  Lord  of  glory  dwells  and  will  judge  the 
world ;  and  so  long  as  heaven  is  conceived  of  as  a  locality,  (and  so  the 
HebrcAvs  did  conceive  and  speak  of  it),  the  east,  from  which  the  sun, 
moon,  and  all  the  stars  apparently  proceed,  might  very  naturally  be  se- 
lected as  the  dwelling-place  of  divine  Majesty,  although,  in  more  an- 
cient times,  the  north  (as  it  would  seem)  had  been  selected.  It  is  not 
necessary,  however,  to  find  the  dwelling-place  of  the  Most  High  in  the 
region  where  the  angel  makes  his  appearance,  or  (in  other  words)  to 
suppose  they  both  are  in  one  and  the  same  place.  Enough  that,  like  the 
rising  sun  which  comes  forth  in  all  its  splendour  from  the  east,  the  an- 
gel with  the  seal  in  his  hand  comes  forth  in  like  splendour,  to  perform 
the  grateful  task  assigned  to  him. 

2^cpQuyida,  i.  e.  a  seal  or  stamp,  on  which  is  doubtless  supposed  to  be 
engraved  the  name  of  Jehovah,  which  must  be  impressed  upon  the  fore- 
heads (v.  3)  of  the  servants  of  God,  so  that  they  would  at  once  be  re- 
cognized as  his,  and  thus  be  secure  against  all  harm ;  see  and  comp.  on 
2:  17. — Oig  ido&i]  avroig,  seemingly  a  pure  Hebraism  =  nnb  )m  ''>'^,'^_, 
but  the  like  is  found  even  in  good  classics ;  see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  121. 
4.  Note  4.  It  is  a  mode  of  expression  not  unfrequent  in  this  book. — 
u^dtxijaai,  to  injure,  hurt,  do  harm  to  ;  comp.  6:  6. — Tqv  y^jv  >iai  ztjv 
S^ukaaaav,  the  usual  division  which  comprehends  the  whole  world,  or 
the  whole  of  any  country,  and  it  is  here  designed  to  be  a  generic  and 
comprehensive  expression. 

(3)  Saying :  Hurt  not  tlie  earth,  nor  the  sea,  nor  the  trees,  until  we  shall  have 
sealed  the  servants  of  God  upon  their  foreheads. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  actual  w^ork  of  destruction,  for  which  all  had 
seemed  to  be  ready,  the  executioners  of  divine  justice,  i.  e.  the  destroy- 
ing angels,  are  required  to  suspend  their  work,  until  the  servants  of  God 
can  be  rendered  secure.  The  earth,  sea,  and  trees,  are  all  mentioned 
here,  in  conformity  with  the  division  made  in  v.  1,  where  the  meaning 
is  rendered  much  more  intense  by  the  addition  of  ra  dt'vdQa.  And  so 
here ;  not  even  a  leaf  is  to  be  injured  by  the  winds,  until  the  servants 
of  God  shall  be  rendered  secure. 


SERVANTS  OP  OOD  SEALED  :  ChaP.  VII.  4.         171 

*Em  Tcor  fitTcoTiojr  uvtiop.  Tliis  is  no  tloul)t  after  tlic  model  in  Ezek. 
9:  4,  5,  where  un  ariLjel  is  eoinmissioiieil  to  go  tlu-ougU  the  eity  of  Je- 
rusalem, and  mark  upon  the  forehead  all  who  should  be  exemj)ted  from 
the  approachinjr  slaughter.  In  Ex.  12:  7,  the  Israelites  ai-e  directed  to 
mark  their  door-posts  with  the  blootl  of  the  pasehal  lamb,  so  that  the 
destroying  angel  might  i>a<s  them  by  in  his  midnight  work  of  excision. 
In  liev.  2:  17,  we  fin<l  that  the  diadem  which  "kings  and  priests  unto 
God"  are  to  wear,  as  the  reward  of  victory,  has  a  frontispiece  on  which 
is  inscribed  the  name  of  Jehovah.  But  this  crown  is  not  given  until 
the  ptX)bation  of  each  one  is  closed ;  and  therefore,  in  the  present  case, 
the  name  is  not  placed  upon  a  mitre  but  on  the  forehead,  where  it  will 
be  most  distinctly  visible.  Nor  is  it  placed  there  simply  in  the  way  of 
reward^  as  in  2:  17,  but  for  the  puqwses  of  safety.* 

(4)  And  I  heard  the  number  of  those  who  were  sealed ;  one  hundred  and  forty 
and  four  thousand  were  sealed,  from  every  tribe  of  the  children  of  Israel. 

That  the  number  in  this  case  is  symbolical^  and  not  to  be  literally 
taken,  seems  scarcely  necessary  to  remark.  The  twelve  tribes  of  course 
give  the  occasion  for  selecting  the  number  ttcelve  ;  and  this  is  often  re- 
peated in  other  places  ;  comp.  Rev.  21:  12,  twelve  gates,  twelve  angels, 
twelve  names  of  tribes;  21:  16,  twelve  thousand  furlongs;  21:  17,  the 
wall  is  twelve  times  twelve  cubits  high,  i.  e.  li-i  cubits  ;  21:  21,  the 
twelve  gates  are  twelve  pearls  ;  comp.  in  Ezek.  48:  30 — 34.  Compare 
with  these  the  twelve  fountains  in  EUm,  Ex.  15:  27  ;  the  twelve  pillars 
around  the  altar,  Ex.  24:  4 ;  twelves  cakes  of  shew  bread.  Lev.  24:  5  ; 
twelve  gems  in  the  breast-plate  of  the  high-priest,  Ex.  28:  10  ;  twelve 
stones  set  up  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  Joshua  4:  3  ;  offerings  by 
twelves,  Num.  7:  3,  87.    29:  17.    Ezra  8:  35  ;    vessels  for  the  temple, 

•  The  Romans  marked  their  soldiers  in  the  hand,  and  their  slaves  in  the  fore- 
head;  Veget,  de  Re  inilit.  II.  .5.  Aetius,  8.  12.  Hesych.  sub  ioT^tdva;  and  in 
Is.  3:  21,  "S  ,  a  brand,  is  mentioned  as  a  mark  of  servile  disgrace.  Yet  here  the 
design  of  a  mark  is  evidently  diflbrent.  It  unquestionably  refers  to  some  custom, 
well  known  to  the  writer  and  his  original  circle  of  readers,  of  branding  tlie  name 
of  the  king,  or  of  the  god  whom  they  served,  upon  the  foreheads  of  subjects  or 
worshippers ;  answering,  at  the  same  time,  the  purposes  of  honour  and  defence, 
and  designating  the  expression  of  devotedness.  The  mark  set  upon  Cain,  Gen. 
4:  1.^,  so  far  as  it  served  the  purpose  of  defending  his  life,  might  be  compared 
with  the  present  case.  So  Herod.  II.  113  speaks  of  the  worshippers  of  a  certam 
god  as  having  his  name  branded  on  them;  and  such  was  the  custom  among  the 
ancient  Hindoos,  Asial,  Res.  VII.  p.  2dl  seq.  In  like  manner,  the  worsliippers 
of  the  beast,  in  the  sequel,  arc  represented  as  bearing  his  mark,  13:  ](j— If .  14: 
9,  11.  16:  2.  10:  20.  20:  4.  Comp.  3  Mace.  2:  29.  I  do  not  apprehend,  however, 
that  in  our  text  any  particular  reference  is  made  to  this  custom  among  idolatrous 
nations,  but  merely  to  the  passage  in  Ezek.  9:  4,  where  the  murk  is  both  symbol 
and  pledge  of  exemption  from  slaughter. 


r 

172        SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED  :  ChAP.  VII.  5 8. 

Num.  7:  84 — 8G ;  twelve  prefects  over  Israel,  1  Kings  4:  7 ;  twelve 
lions  near  the  royal  throne,  1  Kings  10:  20  ;  twelve  oxen  supporting  the 
brazen  laver,  1  Kings  7:  25 ;  the  altar  twelve  cubits  long  and  twelve 
broad,  Ezek.  43:  16,  etc.  See  Exc.  II.  at  the  end.  A  thousand  is  the 
frequent  and  familiar  number  for  designating  many,  and  oftentimes  it 
stands  for  an  indefinite  number ;  Ps.  DO:  4.  2  Pet.  3:  8.  Rev.  20:  2,  3. 
Dan.  7:  10.  Rev.  5:  11,  comp.  Heb.  12:  22.  That  there  were  exactly 
the  number  12,000  of  each  tribe,  who  were  Christians  at  this  period,  I 
suppose  will  hardly  be  contended  for  by  any  sober  interpreter.  Some 
of  the  tribes  seem  to  have  been  extinct ;  at  least  one  of  them  (Dan)  is 
omitted  in  the  sequel.  Of  the  descendants  of  the  ten  tribes,  there  were 
certainly  but  a  small  number  in  Judea,  at  this  period.  The  144,000, 
then,  designates  a  goodly  number,  we  may  say  a  large  mimher,  of 
Clii'istians  from  among  the  Jews.  If,  however,  the  reader  has  any  dif- 
ficulty on  the  score  of  making  out  so  many  Jewish  Christians,  he  may 
consult  Acts  6:  7.  12:  24.  19:  20.  Very  considerable  progress,  accord- 
ing to  these  passages,  we  must  suppose  the  gospel  to  have  made  among 
the  Jews,  when  the  Apocalypse  was  Avritten. 

Ewald  labours  here,  in  order  to  establish  his  view  of  this  part  of  the 
Apocalypse,  viz.  that  it  extends  to  and  comprises  all  Chiistians  in  every 
part  of  the  earth,  to  show  that  all  Christians  then  bore  the  title  of  Jews, 
because  it  was  among  the  Jews,  and  by  Jews,  that  the  Gospel  was 
first  propagated.  But  his  arguments,  built  merely  upon  hypothetical 
propositions,  are  far  from  being  satisfactory.  How  is  it  possible,  after 
attentively  reading  the  epistles  to  the  Romans,  Galatians,  and  Hebrews, 
to  suppose  that  all  Christians  were  regarded  as  Jews,  in  the  days  of  the 
apostles  ?  Besides  ;  what  could  induce  the  writer  in  the  present  case, 
to  make  this  enumeration  so  particular  and  specific  as  he  has  done,  if 
he  did  not  intend  to  show,  that  Christians  in  the  land  of  Judea  only,  at 
all  events  principally,  were  intended  to  be  included  here  ?  The  dan- 
gers of  other  Christians,  in  other  lauds,  are  brought  to  view  in  another 
part  of  the  book,  i.  e.  in  chap,  xii— xix. 

(5 — 8)  Of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  twelve  thousand,  etc. 

The  manner  and  order  of  enumeration  here  demand  some  special  ex- 
planation, (a)  The  order  is  not  that  of  hir-th  ;  for  the  order  of  birth 
in  Gen.  xxix.  xxx.  is  thus  :  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Dan,  Naph- 
tali,  Gad,  Asher.  Issachai",  Zebulun,  Joseph,  and  Benjamin.  Li  the 
blessing  of  Jacob,  Gen.  xlix.  this  order  is  changed,  and  runs  thus  : 
Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Zebulun,  Issachai',  Dan,  Gad,  Asher, 
Naphtah,  Joseph,  and  Benjamin.  In  the  blessing  of  Moses,  Deut. 
xxxiii,  a  different  order  still  is  observed :  Reuben,  Judah,  Levi,  Ben- 
jamin,  Joseph,  Zebulun,  Issachar,   Gad,   Dan,   Naphtali,   Asher  j  in 


SERVANTS  OF  aon  SEALED  :  Chap.  VII.  5 — 8.     178 

wliich  list,  moroovcr,  Simeon  is  omitted.  So  apain,  in  Ezek.  xlviii. 
there  are  two  enumerations  of  the  twelve  tribes,  both  in  an  order  differ- 
ent from  each  other,  and  from  the  preceding  arrangements :  viz.  in 
31 — 34,  where  I^evi  is  reckoned  as  one,  and  Joseph  as  only  one; 
while  in  vs.  1^27,  which  have  respect  to  the  division  of  the  country, 
Levi  (who  had  no  heritage  in  land)  is  omitted,  and  at  the  same  time 
Ephraim  and  Mana^sch  are  counted  as  two  tribes. 

{b)  This  last  mode  of  reckoning  points  us  to  a  peculiarity  which  has 
reference  to  the  division  of  country ;  for  in  this,  one  tribe,  viz.  that  of 
Levi,  is  of  course  to  be  omitted.  Thus,  in  Num.  xiii,  Levi  is  omitted  ; 
and  Ephraim  and  Joseph  (i.  e.  Manasseh)  are  reckoned  as  two  tribes, 
so  as  to  complete  the  number  twelve.  Here  also,  in  v.  11,  the  writer 
expressly  states,  that  he  means  by  Joseph  to  designate  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  because  (v.  8)  he  had  before  mentioned  Ephraim  :  "  Of  the 
tribe  of  Joseph,  namely  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh."  This  last  circum- 
stance has  an  important  bearing  on  the  explanation  of  the  passage  in 
the  ^Vpocalypse  now  before  us  ;  for  in  Rev.  7:  6  Manasseh  is  mentioned, 
w  hile  in  v.  8  Joseph  is  also  named.  By  Joseph,  then  must  doubtless  be 
here  meant  Ephraim  ;  for  this  is  a  parallel  case  with  that  in  Num.  13: 
11.  So  in  Num.  i,  in  twice  reckoning  the  tribes,  Levi  is  omitted, 
and  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  inserted.  So  also  in  Josh.  xvi.  xvii, 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  reckoned  as  txvo  distinct  tribes ;  Josh.  14: 
4  expressly  declares  this.  In  the  prolonged  account  of  the  original 
division  of  Canaan,  in  Joshua  xiii — xix,  Levi  is  of  course  omitted,  be- 
cause he  had  no  heritage;  see  13:  15,  24,  29  (comp.  17:  1,  2).  15:  1. 
IG:  5.  18:  11.  19:  1,  10,  17,  24,  32,  40,  where  Manasseh  and  Ephraim 
are  again  counted  as  two  tribes.  For  the  reason  of  the  omission  of 
Levi,  see  Josh.  14:  3,  4,  and  18:  7. 

(c)  We  perceive  an  obvious  reason  for  the  omission  of  Levi,  in  the 
preceding  accounts  of  the  apportionment  of  the  country.  But  there 
are  other  cases  in  the  O.  Testament,  of  a  similar  nature  in  regiu'd  to 
the  method  of  reckoning,  i.  e.  the  omission  of  some  tribes,  which  are 
not  dependent  on  this  principle.  E.  g.  Deut.  xxxiii.  omits  Simeon,  in 
the  blessing  of  Moses.  So  in  1  Chron.  4:  1,  24.  5:  1,  11,  23  (comp.  7: 
14).  G:  1.  7:  1,  G,  13,  20,  30.  8:  1,  the  sons  of  Benjamin  are  twice 
reckoned ;  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  both  counted  ;  and  the  tribes  of 
Zebulun  and  Dan  are  both  omitted;  although  in  1  Chron.  21:  2,  the 
whole  twelve  are  inserted.  Such  are  the  facts  before  us.  It  remains 
now  to  apply  them  to  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  in  the  text. 

In  the  cases  mentioned  under  (c),  we  find,  first,  that  Simeon  is 
omitted  in  the  blessing  of  Moses ;  and,  secondly,  that  in  the  second 
enumeration  in  Clu-onicles  both  Zebulun  and  Dan  are  omitted,  while 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  counted  as  two  tribes,  and  Benjamin  is 


174  SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED  :    ChAP.   VII,  5 — 8. 

twice  inserted.  In  (h),  we  find  Levi  purposely  omitted,  in  the  accounts 
of  the  division  of  the  country,  while  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  count- 
ed as  two  tribes.  Consequently  we  see,  that  the  tivelve  tribes  are  dif- 
ferently  reckoned,  at  different  periods,  and  according  to  the  different 
objects  in  view.  There  are  no  two  cases  in  the  whole  Bible,  where 
the  order  and  number  of  the  names  are  both  the  same. 

The  like  liberty  now,  has  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  taken  in  the 
case  before  us.  Dan  is  omitted,  and  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  in- 
serted as  constituting  two  tribes.  It  is  true,  that  Ephraim  is  not  named 
expressly,  but  is  called  Joseph  (v.  8).  Yet  there  is  nothing  strange  in 
this,  for  in  Num.  13:  8,  11,  Ephraim  is  named  and  Manasseh  is  called 
Joseph ;  which  is  exactly  parallel  with  the  present  case  of  the  same 
nature ;  and  therefore  no  more  illustration  of  this  seeming  peculiarity  is 
needed.* 

*  The  different  hypotheses  that  have  been  invented  for  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty before  us,  are  hardly  worth  examining  or  even  naming,  after  these  views 
have  been  given  from  the  O.  Testament.  Grotius  thinks  that  the  tribe  of  Dan  is 
omitted,  because  it  was  nearly  extinct,  when  the  Apocalypse  was  written.  If 
such  were  the  fact,  then  the  omission  on  tliis  ground  may  indeed  be  deemed 
probable.  Proof  of  the  fact,  however,  is  wanting,  excepting  we  gather  it  from 
the  later  imprecations  of  the  Rabbins  against  the  tribe  of  Dan,  as  having  taken 
the  lead  in  idolatry;  see  Heinrichs  Comm.  II.  p.  2.31.  Hartwig,  in  his  .'ipologie 
der  Jipocalypse,  Th.  II.  p.  237  seq.,  supposes  JAN  to  have  arisen  from  Mu4N, 
and  this  to  have  been  put  by  abridgment  for  MavaaaTj ;  and  yet  Andreas,  Origen, 
and  even  Irenaeus,  found  the  reading  Mavaaatj,  and  speak  of  the  difficulty  aris- 
ing from  it;  so  that  such  a  conjecture  is  underserving  of  serious  notice.  Eich- 
horn,  Heinrichs,  and  others,  are  inclined  to  maintain,  that  the  omission  was  be- 
cause of  the  early  apostacy  of  Dan  to  idolatry,  Judg.  xviii.  and  1  Kings  12:  2!),  30. 
But  what  shall  we  say  of  the  still  earlier  idolatry  recorded  in  Ex.  xxxii. ;  and  of 
the  repeated  and  long  continued  examples  of  it  among  all  the  tribes,  as  recorded 
in  the  books  of  Judge.?,  Kings,  and  Chronicles.'  Eichhorn,  after  Bengel,  has  also 
suggested  another  solution,  viz.,  that  the  word  Manasseh  (Rev.  7:  6)  is  used  in  a 
symbolical  and  enigmatical  manner;  for  rs:  means  <o /or^ei,  and  n'i3.>3  would 
therefore  signify'  oldiriscendus,  i.  e.  he  whu  ought  to  he  forgotten  or  passed  by,  viz. 
Dan,  either  because  of  his  idolatry,  or  because  of  the  fewness  of  his  number.  Yet 
TrnjiZ  ,  Part.  Piel,  cannot  mean  ohlivisr.endus,  but  facicns  oblivisci,  or  iradtns 
oblivioni ;  so  that  we  offend  against  the  laws  of  grammar  by  such  an  exegesis  ; 
and  not  only  so,  but  to  single  out  one  name  in  such  a  catalogue,  (a  name  too  in 
itself  of  proper  significance),  and  make  it  enigmatical,  while  all  the  rest  of  the 
names  are  considered  merely  as  proper  names,  is  doing  a  violence  to  the  plain 
principles  of  interpretation  which  is  inadmissible.  Last  of  all,  the  ancient  inter- 
pretation of  Andreas,  which  has  been  followed  by  many,  may  be  mentioned  ; 
which  is,  that  the  tribe  of  Dan  is  omitted,  ok  f|  avT?j?  Ti^ofitvov  rov  'AvTi'/Qta- 
Tov,  i.  e.  because  .Antichrist  is  to  spring  from  it;  see  in  Heinrichs,  ut  sup.  p  232. 
Whence  this  is  to  be  proved  ;  or,  even  if  it  were  true,  how  this  could  exclude  the 
Danites  of  John's  day  from  a  place  on  the  list  of  the  tribes  then  living;  are  ques- 
tions that  need  no  discussion. 


SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED  :  ChAP.  VII.  9.         175 

The  simple  conclusion  is,  that  the  author  followed  the  customary 
mode  of  reckon  in  ij  the  tribes,  prevalent  at  the  time  when  he  wrote. 
That  such  a  usus  loqHeutU  was  prevsilent,  seems  to  be  plain  from  two 
facts ;  the  one,  that  John  would  not  have  adopted  a  mode  of  reckoning 
repugnant  to  the  feelings  and  usages  of  his  contemporaries,  for  nothing 
was  to  be  gained  by  so  doing ;  the  other,  that  we  have  an  abundance 
of  examples  of  a  like  method  of  reckoning  in  the  0.  Testament.  No- 
thing strange  could  be  thought  of  this,  when  John  adopted  it ;  at  least, 
such  seems  to  be  the  case,  from  a  view  of  the  facts  that  have  been  pre- 
sented. 

(9)  After  these  things  1  looked,  and  behold  I  a  great  multitude  which  no  man 
could  number,  of  every  nation,  and  [all]  tribes,  and  people,  and  tongues,  stand- 
ing before  the  throne  and  before  the  Lamb,  clothed  with  white  robes,  and  palm- 
branches  in  their  hands. 

The  form  i]8vritT0,  with  /;  for  augment,  is  Attic  and  usual,  N.  Test. 
Gramm.  §  54.  3.  Note  1. — "Ov  doiiy^Fjaai  aviov,  like  the  Hebrew  idi- 
om, e.  g.  "n:"?!?  l53!i'<  xb  t^'X;  but  see  on  v.  2  above. — Kai  cfvXcov  •/..  r.  X. 
in  the  plural,  and  therefore  the  plural  of  nag  must  be  mentally  supplied 
before  each.  The  actual  repetition  of  the  adjective  is  unnecessary,  and 
would  here  be  ungrateful  to  the  reader. — 'Eazwrtg  the  usual  form,  (in- 
stead of  eGTtjXbJTtg),  arising  from  syncope  and  contraction,  Kiihn.  §  235. 
3  and  Anm.  6 ;  used  in  the  sense  of  the  Pres.  tense,  Gramm.  §  136. 
Note  2.  c. — Ilirni^^p.r^in'rovi;,  coming  from  a  verb  which  governs  two 
Accusatives  (Gramm.  §  104.)  ;  here  the  Part,  is  in  the  Pass,  voice,  and 
it  retains  the  latter  of  the  Accusatives,  Gramm.  §  105.  As  to  the  Ace. 
case  of  the  Participle  itself,  (we  should  of  course  expect  the  Nom.,  like 
taraJTeg),  it  must  be  solved  by  supposing  the  preceding  tldov  to  lie  still 
in  the  writer's  mind  ;  comp.  the  like  idiom  as  to  the  Ace.  case,  in  4:  2 — 
4.  13: 1—3.  14:  14  al.,  see  Vol.  I.  §  15.  p.  235  seq. 

"  The  great  multitude  tvhich  no  man  could  number"  is  contrasted  with 
the  144,000  just  mentioned  as  a  specific  number. — "E&vovg,  qv).wi;  Xa- 
for,  and  yXaoaoh',  (comp.  on  5:  9),  are  designed  to  comprehend  all  na- 
tions, or  to  designate  unlimited  universality ;  they  are  not  to  be  taken 
in  an  individually  specific  sense,  i.  e.  in  one  which  is  numerically  accu- 
rate. AVhat  the  writer  means  is,  that  great  multitudes,  gathered  from 
Gentile  nations  which  were  spread  far  and  wide  as  well  as  from  Jews, 
appeared  on  this  occasion  before  the  throne.  Nothing  can  be  more  nat- 
ural. Christianity  was  everywhere  suffering  persecution  at  this  time, 
both  from  Pagans  and  .Jews.  AVhen  therefore  the  angel  seals  the  ser- 
vants of  God  in  their  foreheads,  thus  giving  them  a  safeguard  an<l  a 
passport,  all  the  m:u-tyrs  in  heaven  sympathize  with  this  aff'ecting  trans- 
action, and  unite  in  the  expression  of  their  joy  and  thanksgiving.  One 
spirit  actuates  them  all.     They  see  their  brethren  in  Judea  to  be  the 


176       SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED  :  ChAP.  VII.  10,  11. 

first  who  were  made  secure  from  the  persecuting  power  ;  for  their  suf- 
ferings had  preceded  those  of  others,  and  had  also  been  jnuch  the  most 
protracted.  God  is  now  thanked  and  praised  for  this  interposition  of  his 
great  raercj.  From  whatever  quarter  the  martyrs  come,  by  whomsoever 
their  blood  was  shed,  the  same  splendid  robes  are  given  them,  and  they 
carry  palm-branches  in  their  hands,  (so  did  the  victors  in  the  athletic  con- 
tests of  Greece  and  Rome),  as  the  emblem  of  their  having  overcome  the 
world,  and  continued  steadfast  even  to  the  end.  By  mentioning  the  great 
number  here  concerned  in  this  act  of  thanksgiving  and  praise,  the  writer 
enhances  the  intei'est  and  importance  of  the  scene,  and  discloses  the  sym- 
pathy which  the  saints  in  heaven  have  with  the  prosperity  of  the  church 
on  earth.  Another  object  also  is  answered.  In  6:  6 — 11  it  is  said,  that 
the  number  of  martyrs  must  be  still  more  augmented,  before  the  consum- 
mation of  punishment  will  arrive.  Here  we  see  that  the  number  has  been 
augmenting;  more  of  this  augmentation  is  also  disclosed  in  the  sequel. 

(10)  And  they  cry  with  a  loud  voice,  saying  :  Salvation  to  our  God  who  silteth 
on  the  throne,  and  to  the  Lamb. 

'^mrtiQiu,  deliverance,  viz.  from  the  dangers  then  impending.  It  has 
reference  here,  to  the  sealing  of  the  servants  of  God  in  their  foreheads, 
and  of  course  to  the  safety  that  was  thus  assured  to  them.  The  dan- 
gers were  so  great,  that  nothing  but  the  special  favour  and  protection  of 
God  could  save  the  righteous  from  being  destroyed.  Comp.  in  19:  1  a 
similar  sentiment,  after  escape  from  the  destruction  of  Babylon. — Qaoi 
xcu  uQvloi,  whei'e,  as  in  nearly  all  other  cases,  the  same  action,  or  at  least 
a  conjoint  action,  is  ascribed  to  God  and  the  Lamb,  viz.  the  deliverance 
of  the  righteous  from  the  power  of  their  enemies. 

The  sympathy  of  all  the  martyrs  in  heaven  with  what  the  church  in 
Judea  is  doing  and  suffering,  is  so  perfectly  natural  that  no  explanation 
is  needed.  Nor  does  the  sentiment  that  is  subjoined  require  much  ex- 
planation, when  it  represents  all  the  heavenly  world  as  participating  in 
the  sympathies  and  hopes  of  those  who  are  sealed,  and  in  thanksgiving 
to  God  who  has  laid  a  foundation  for  these  hopes.     So  the  context. 

(11)  And  all  the  angels  stood  around  the  throne  and  the  elders  and  the  four 
living  creatures,  and  they  fell  upon  their  faces  before  the  throne,  and  worshipjcd 
God'; 

'EaTi]-Aeoar,  third  pers.  plur.  of  Pluperf.  from  lozii^i.  The  more  usual 
form  of  the  tense  ending  in  third  plur.  is — saav  instead  of  the  normal 
— 8iauv.  As  the  Perf.  here  has  the  sense  of  the  Pi-esent,  (KiJhn.  §  203, 
5),  so  the  Pluperf.  has  the  meaning  of  the  Imperf. ;  see  on  the  form, 
Kiihn.  §  175.  5. — KvxXo)  rov  &q6vov  y.ul  rav  noeo^vziQcov  x.  r.  I.  makes 
it  sufficiently  plain  in  the  Greek,  that  the  angels  are  here  represented 
as  standing  in  the  oicter  circle  of  all  these  ;    while  the  English  version, 


SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED:    ClIAP.    VII.  12 — 14.  177 

not  to  leave  the  point  dubious,  supplies  the  preposition  ahout^  before  the 
words  ciders  and  linii;/  credfures.  The  martyrs  are  doubtless  to  be  re- 
garded as  here  Jissoeiated  with  the  elders  ;  for  so  v.  9  clearly  shows, 
which  represents  them  as  standing  eimthov  rov  {}{>()i'ov  y.(U  ivianiov  zov 
aQviov.  1  have  before  called  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the  fact, 
that  to  the  redeemed  in  heaven  is  given  pi-ecedence  of  rank  before  the 
ministering  angels  in  general,  comp.  1  Cor.  G:  3. 

*  (12)  Saying:  Anion!  Blessinir, and  glor}',  and  wisdom,  and  thanksgiving, and 
honour,  and  power,  and  inijrht,  be  unto  our  God  forever  and  ever! 

Tiie  same  doxology  for  substance  occurs,  as  we  have  seen,  in  5:  12  ; 
see  the  notes  there.  But  the  order  of  the  words  is  difterent  here  ;  and 
ttXovtov  there  is  exchanged  here  for  evj^aQiaria,  i.  e.  thanksgiving. 
There  the  ascription  is  to  the  Lamb,  here  it  is  to  our  God.  The  same  praise 
is  of  course  rendered  to  both.  In  respect  to  the  universalifi/  of  those  who 
render  it,  the  passage  in  i>:  11  is  the  most  emphatic  and  all-com[)rising. 

(13)  Then  one  of  the  ciders  accosted  me,  saying:  Tliese,  who  are  clothed  with 
white  robes — who  are  they  ?     And  whence  did  they  come  ? 

Kai',  in  this  book,  stands  at  the  head  of  all  manner  of  transitions. 
Here  the  transition  is  so  great,  that  the7i  is  more  appropriate  than  and 
in  English. — Jin^y.ni&tj  .  .  .  h'ycov  fioi  =  "i-N^  ^ij^' ,  which  is  frequent 
in  Hebrew.  The  verb  n:i'  often  means  to  commence  an  address,  Ges. 
.  Lex.  M3r  No.  2  ;  and  the  same  is  true  with  respect  to  dnoxQivo^ai  in 
the  N.  Testament.  This  is  evidently  the  meaning  here. — Ei^'  Ix  .  .  . 
see  on  this  idiom  in  6:  1. 

The  object  of  the  questions  here,  on  the  part  of  the  author,  is  to 
bring  more  distinctly  into  view  the  character  and  state  of  the  martyrs  in 
heaven.  The  writer  seems  to  have  had  in  his  mind  the  passage  in 
Zech.  4:  4,  5  ;  which  will  be  easily  understood  by  a  comparison.  But 
here,  the  manner  of  the  question — as  it  proceeds  fx'om  one  of  the  elders 
— is  more  striking  and  peculiar. 

(14)  And  1  said  to  him:  My  lord,  thbu  knowest.  And  he  said  to  me  :  These 
are  tliey  who  come  out  of  great  tribulation,  and  have  washed  their  robes  and 
cleansed  tliem  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb. 

KvQts  fiov,  my  lord;  in  our  English  version,  Sir.  Rightly  as  to 
sense  ;  for  such  is  our  usual  mode  of  address.  But  the  Hebrew  mode 
was  "^:~ix  =  xv(>it'  /lov.  Mg  sir,  our  idiom  does  not  permit.  3fg  lord  is 
merely  a  respectful  mode  of  address,  in  the  mouth  of  a  Hebrew ;  al- 
though it  might  be  used  in  a  sense  higher  than  simply  this ;  but  then 
the  Hebrews  said  "^nx,  and  not  "'Six. 

2lv  ol8(Cf',  i.  e.  I  am  unable  to  answer  the  question,  but  thou  canst 
easily  answer  it.  The  modesty  and  respect  of  the  seer,  in  this  case, 
are  rendered  very  palpable. — T/^s  i>At'i/'icoi,'  [Atyuhj';,  the  great  ajjliction, 

VOL.  II.  23 


178       SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED  :  ChAP.  VII.  15,  16. 

i.  e.  persecution  even  unto  death. — "Enlvvav,  have  ^cashed,  refers  to  the 
white  robes  Avith  which  they  were  clothed. — 'Eluvxavuv,  lit.  have  made 
loMte  ;  but  this  primary  meaning  is  incongruous  here.  To  malce  xohite 
by  washing  in  hlood  is  an  inconsistent  expression.  Of  course  the  se- 
condary sense  of  the  verb,  viz.  to  cleanse,  to  petrify,  (from  the  well 
known  rite  of  cleansing  things  by  blood  under  the  ancient  ritual),  is  the 
only  proper  meaning  to  be  assigned  to  Iktvxavav  here.  The  meaning 
is,  that  the  Lamb  has  redeemed  them  by  his  blood,  and  thus  conferred 
on  them  the  honour  of  being  clothed  in  white.  On  the  use  of  the  Aor. 
in  these  two  cases,  instead  of  the  Perf.  (which  might  have  been  used), 
see  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  136.  5.  3,  and  comp.  §  136.  3.  Note  2. 

(15)  Because  of  tliis  they  are  before  the  throne  of  God,  and  serve  him  day  and 
niglit  in  his  temple;  and  he  who  sitteth  upon  the  throne  will  spread  his  tent  over 
them. 

The  redeemed  are  made  Hnffs  and  priests  to  God,  1:  6.  Hence,  like 
the  priests  of  old,  they  serve  him  in  his  temple  day  and  night,  i,  e.  with- 
out cessation. — ^yjjvcaaEi.  fV  avzovg,  English  version,  shall  dwell  among 
them.  But  this  would  be  in  avzolg.  The  Ace.  here  with  ml  must  de- 
note one  of  two  things,  viz.  either,  (a)  That  the  glory  of  God,  the 
Shechinah,  nilT;'  'tis?  5  should  rest  on  them  or  over  them,  as  over  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  and  over  the  tabernacle  of  old;  see  Ex.  40:  34  seq. 
Num-.  9:  15 — 23;  or  (5)  That  he  will  erect  his  tent  over  them,  i.  e. 
receive  them  into  intimate  connection  and  union  with  him,  and  afford 
them  his  protection.  That  o-Ar^voat  may  mean  to  furnish  with  a  tent, 
etc.,  is  plain  from  the  nature  of  the  verb ;  for  verbs  of  this  class  often 
have  a  like  meaning ;  e.  g.  arhcpavoa,  to  furnish  loith  a  croion,  TTzegoco, 
to  furnish  with  wings,  etc.  Either  of  the  above  meanings  is  good  ;  but, 
on  the  whole,  I  prefer  the  latter;  comp.  Is.  4:  5,  6.  Ps.  27:  5.  121:  5, 
6.  Is.  49:  10. 

(16)  They  shall  hunger  no  more,  neither  shall  they  thirst  any  more,  neither 
shall  the  sun  fall  upon  them,  nor  any  scorching  heat. 

Ov  .  .  .  in  and  ovds  .  .  .  en,  no  more  or  never  .  .  .  7iever,  is  a  mode  of 
negation  so  often  repeated  in  the  Apocalypse  (comp.  18:  22,  23),  that 
it  is  somewhat  peculiar  to  this  book,  in  respect  to  frequency,  although  it 
is  in  itself  good  Greek ;  see  Luke  20:  40.  Matt.  5:  13.  John  14:  30. 
Gal.  4:  7.  Heb.  8:  12.  Buttm.  §  149.  voc.  sn. 

'0  ijhog  here  designates  what  we  call  the  st7'oke  of  the  sun,  i.  e.  an 
excessive  solar  heat  which  creates  a  raging  thirst  and  fever. — IJuv  y.uv- 
fia  is  generic  and  includes  all  kinds  of  heat,  that  of  the  night  as  well  as 
that  of  the  day.  The  original  idea,  however,  in  Is.  49: 10,  which  seems 
to  be  here  alluded  to,  is  a  little  different ;  "  No  sun  nor  n'n'j  shall  smite 
them"     The  word  2'ii^  means  mirage,  i.  e.  that  appearance  of  water, 


SERVANTS  OF  GOD  SEALED:    ClIAP.    VII.  17.  179 

wliich  is  occasioned  by  licat  that,  makes  the  vapour  exhale  from  the 
samlv  desert,  and  whicli  often  misleads  and  destroys  the  unwary  travel- 
ler by  its  deeei)tive  appearance.  Whether  the  writer  intended  to  ex- 
press this  by  xai'ita  here,  may  possibly  be  doubtful.  I  have  followed 
the  most  simple  meaning  of  the  Greek,  in  the  explanation  above ;  but 
83  the  Septuaginf,  in  Is.  49:  10,  have  rendered  3n":J  by  xavcjoiv  =  the 
Sirocco,  there  cannot  be  much  objection  to  the  idea,  that  John  may 
have  intended  to  express  the  same  meaning  by  x«y//«.  It  is  at  least 
very  descriptive,  and  sulficiently  appropriate. 

(17)  For  tlie  Lamb  who  is  in  the  midst  of  tlio  throne  sliall  lead  tlicm,  and  he 
will  guide  them  to  fountains  of  livinij  water,  and  God  will  wipe  away  every  tear 
from  their  eyes. 

Jlvii  nioor  is  a  phrase  of  some  difliculty.  Passow  gives  to  avd  with 
the  Ace,  the  same  meaning  that  tr  has  with  the  Dat. ;  e.  g.  dia  azoiia  = 
iv  6t6^iuti  ;  and  there  are  many  cases  where  this  may  be  correct.  But 
in  the  case  before  us,  there  may  be  doubt  whether  such  a  sense  is  ad- 
missible. The  Lamb  is  still  standing  between  the  thro7ie  and  the  elders  ; 
of  course  he  was  now,  while  the  speaker  w^as  contemplating  him,  not 
seated  on  the  throne.  In  Mark  7:  31,  we  have  did  fii-'aov  toji'  oqi'mv 
/Jtxanolecog,  i.  e.  over  against  the  limits  of  Decapolis ;  for  Decapolis 
was  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake  of  Galilee,  and  the  journey  of  Jesus 
from  the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  to  the  sea  of  Galilee  (as  here  assert- 
ed), could  not  possibly  be  through  the  mi(i^t  of  the  coasts  of  Decapolis, 
as  our  English  version  has  it.  ^ylrd  iit'aov  here  may  have  a  meaning 
different  from  the  tp  f/saoj  in  Rev.  4:  6.  5:  6 ;  for  in  the  passage  before 
us,  it  may  mean  the  same  as  ivwmov  zov  d-novov,  except  that  it  implies 
a  station  opposite  or  over  against  the  middle  of  the  throne,  i.  e.  directly 
in  front  of  it.  If  however  the  writer  be  regarded  as  here  declaring,  not 
what  the  station  of  the  Lamb  was  at  that  moment,  but  what  station  be- 
longed of  right  to  him,  then  we  may  translate :  in  the  midst,  as  I  have 
done  in  the  version  above. 

IIoiiiavH,  here  not  to  feed,  for  the  imagery  is  not  simply  that  of  a 
ehepherd  feeding  his  flock,  although  it  is  borrowed  from  that  source. 
The  last  part  of  the  verse  shows  that  another  sense  of  noifiavH  is  re- 
quired here,  viz.  that  of  leading,  guiding,  as  a  shepherd  docs  his  flock, 
or  as  a  conductor  leads  a  caravan  through  the  desert  where  the  mirage 
is.  This  is  shown  by  the  next  clause,  which  signifies  as  much  as  to  say  : 
*  He  will  not  suffer  them  to. be  misled  and  deceived  by  the  a'l'J  or  xai}fitt, 
so  as  to  perish  with  thirst,  but  will  safely  guide  them  to  fountains  of 
living  water.' — ^0)/]^  is  used  as  an  adjective  qualifying  n'/^j'rts  vdurMv, 
and  as  such  is  jjlaced  between  the  preposition  and  the  principal  noun. 

'E^uhiifjei  6  Oeo^,'  x.  r.  X.  shows,  that  the  metaphor  of  a  shepherd  and 


190  THE  TRUMPETS  :  Chap.  VIII.  1. 

his  jiock  is  not  intended  to  be  continued  here.  To  wijye  away  tears  i» 
an  action  appropriately  having  i*eference  to  human  beings  as  such.  The 
meaning  of  the  expression  is  obvious  :  '  God  will  assuage  every  sorrow, 
and  alleviate  every  suffering.  Complete  protection  and  defence,  with 
the  supply  of  every  want  and  a  removal  of  every  woe — shall  be  afford- 
ed to  alf  faithful  followers  of  the  Lamb.' 


THE  TRUMPETS:  CHAP.  VIII.  Seq. 

[The  servants  of  God  being  now  secure  against  impending  destruction,  all 
things  appear  to  be  in  readiness  for  the  execution  of  justice  upon  the  persecutors 
of  the  church.  One  seal,  and  one  only,  remains  yet  to  be  broken,  of  the  volume 
in  which  their  destiny  is  inscribed;  and  it  seems  as  if  this  must  introduce  the  con- 
summation. It  is  evident  that  such  is  represented  to  be  the  impression  on  the 
great  multitude  who  encircle  the  throne  of  God.  They  stand  in  silent  and  awful 
expectation  of  the  sequel  which  must  take  place,  when  that  seal  is  broken.  But 
the  Lord  is  'slow  to  anger  and  of  great  m^Icy,  not  willing  that  any  should  perish, 
but  that  all  should  repent  and  be  saved.'  'Judgment  is  his  strange  work ;'  and 
delay  does  not  prove  that  any  uncertainty  attends  the  final  event.  Besides ;  it 
had  already  been  declared  (6:  11),  that  some  delaxj  would  take  place,  until  more 
martyrdoms  should  be  accomplished.  Here  then  the  writer  introduces  various 
circumstances  by  which  this  is  .^ptly  brought  about.  The  breaking  of  the  last 
seal,  instead  of  presenting  a  single  symbol  of  a  single  event,  is  followed  by  a  new 
series  of  events  which  is^isparted  into  seven  gradations  or  stages  of  accomplish- 
y-^  ment;  and  these  are  presented" as  becoming  gradually  more  and  moreannoying 
and  destructive  to  the  enemies  of  the  church.  Trumpets,  the  usual^emblems  of 
jwar  and  Jjloodshed,  are  chosen  as  emblems  of  the  series  of  judgments  now  to  be 
inflicted.  Tlie  first  four  trumpets  affect  the  earth,  the  sea,  the  rivers  with  the 
springs,  and  the  heavens.  The  remaining  three  indicate  judgments  that  fall  more 
immediately  upon  men. 

The  present  chapter  comprises  the  first  four  trumpets  ;  and  the  evils  which 
they  introduce  occur  in  the  order  already  named.  But  before  any  of  the  trum- 
pets are  sounded,  symbols  are  presented  in  heaven  of  the  judgments  about  to  take 
place.  The  supplication  of  the  saints  for  the  relief  of  the  church  comes  up  be- 
fore God,  along  with  the  incense  which  is  presented  before  his  throne  ;  and  the 
answer  that  will  be  made  to  these  supplications  is  symbolized  by  the  action  of  an 
angel,  who  casts  fire  down  upon  the  earth,  which  calls  forth  thunder,  lightning, 
and  earthquake,  all  indicative  of  future  destruction  to  the  enemies  of  the  church. 

Such  is  the  picture  before  us,  and  such  the  plan  of  the  writer  by  which  gradual 
approach  is  made  to  the  final  catastrophe.  Placed  in  this  simple  light,  there  is 
nothing  here  which  does  not  become  intelligible  and  significant.  Indeed  the  gen- 
eral design  is  sufficiently  plain  to  any  intelligent  reader,  who  considers  well  the 
great  outlines  of  the  author's  plan.] 

(1)  And  when  he  opened  the  seventh  seal,  there  was  silence  in  heaven  about 
half  an  hour. 

The  reason  of  this  attitude  of  the  CoeUcolae  has  been  stated  above. 


THE  TRt'MrF.Ts:  Chap.  VIII.  2,  3.  181 

But  (o  make  this  silence — which  is  merely  the  expression  of  deep 
and  tearful  sympathy  with  the  expected  sequel — a  fulfilment  of  all 
which  the  breakinpj  of  the  seventh  seal  indicates,  and  then  to  separate 
the  seven  trumpt^ts  from  this  seal  entirely,  as  Vitringa  and  others  have 
done,  seems  to  be  wholly  overlooking  the  nature  of  the  writer's  plan- 
But  to  go  even  farther  still,  and  make  silence,  in  such  circumstances,  to 
indicate  milloininl  rest  and  peace,  seems  quite  to  exceed  the  bounds  of 
credibility.  Yet  Vitringa  (pp.  319  seq.)  has  done  this ;  and  Beda  and 
others  have  supposed  this  silence  to  indicate  the  rest  of  the  church  after 
the  destruction  of  Antichrist,  (Vitringa  ut  supra,  p.  32G).  How  can 
the  silence  of  half  an  hour  appro[triately  indicate  the  long  rest  of  the 
Millennium  ?  ^'itringa  answers  this  question  by  remarking,  that  '  half 
an  hour  seemed  to  John  a  very  long  time,  when  waiting  for  a  catastro- 
phe.' But  even  if  there  were  any  good  ground  for  such  a  remark,  a 
method  of  exegesis  which  breaks  up  or  confuses  the  regularity  of  plan 
and  development  in  the  writer's  Epopee,  is  wholly  inadmissible. 

(2)  And  I  saw  the  seven  angels  who  stand  before  God  ;  and  seven  trumpets 
were  given  to  them. 

The  writer  does  not  say  merely  seven  angels,  but  rovg  tnTu  ayyit- 
Xovg,  THE  seven  angels.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Rev.  1:  4,  with  the 
notes  and  Excursus,  for  the  illustration  of  this  passage.  The  seven 
presence -angels  are  doubtless  denoted  here.  Whether  this  number  was 
borrowed,  as  has  been  affirmed,  from  the  seven  coimsellors  of  the  Per- 
sian king,  i^iiji,  1^,  or  from  other  sources,  it  matters  not ;  comp. 
Tobit  12:  15.  It  is  at  all  events  an  ancient  mode  of  designating  the 
number ;  and  that  it  was  familiar  to  the  minds  of  the  ancient  Jews,  ap- 
pears from  the  passage  in  Tobit  to  which  reference  is  made. 

Seven  trumpets,  because  the  sounding  of  the  trumpet  is  the  usual  sig- 
nal of  battle  and  of  slaughter. »  By  whom  these  trumpets  were  given  to 
the  angels,  is  not  said.  Nor  is  it  at  all  necessary  to  particulanze  in 
such  cases,  in  a  composition  like  the  present.  Of  coui*ser-they  were 
given  by  the  direction  of  Him  who  sat^upon  the  throne. 

(3)  And  another  angel  came  and  stood  by  the  altar,  having  a  golden  censer  ; 
and  there  was  given  him  much  incense,  that  he  should  place  it,  with  the  prayers 
of  all  the  saints,  upon  the  golden  altar  that  was  before  the  throne. 

'Ear  ((.(ytj,  placed  himself,  used  like  the  middle  voice;  Buttm.  §  136. 
— yli^arbizov,  lit.  frankincense,  the  same  as  Xt^avog,  and  named  from 
mount  Lebanon,  where  the  tree  grows  which  produces  the  gum.  Here, 
however,  the  word  plainly  means  the  pan  or  small  vessel  in  which  the 
incense  was  placed  and  burned,  i.  e.  a  censer.  The  usual  appropriate 
name  for  such  a  vessel  was  h^avazQig  ;  see  in  Phryn.  sub  verlw,  ed. 
Lobeck. — J(aGri,  put  ov  place,  YikQ '{n ;  and  thus  often  in  the  N.  Tes- 
tament. 


182  THK  TRUMPETS  :    CnAP.  VIII.  4,  5. 

The  nature  of  the  representation  supposes  a  temple  in  heaven,  like 
that  on  earth,  in  which  God  dwells,  and  where  he  is  worshipped,  as  in 
his  earthly  temple,  by  offering  incense  before  him. — Tulg  nooawj^arg 
rtav  ayibiv  tzuptcov  presents  some  difficulty,  at  first.  But  in  Rev.  5:  8, 
the  twenty-four  elders  are  represented  as  "  each  having  golden  bowls 
filled  with  incense,  which  are  the  prayers  of  the  saints,"  i.  e.  plainly, 
which  symbolize  the  prayers  of  the  saints.  Thus  is  it  with  the  angel 
here.  The  incense  is  the  symbol  of  prayers  which  ascend  to  God  and 
find  acceptance.  So  Ps.  141:  2,  "  Let  my  prayer  be  set  forth  before 
thee  as  incense."  The  sweet  savour  of  the  incense  is  indicative  of  its 
being  grateful  or  acceptable  ;  see  Gen.  8:  21.  At  the  temple,  the  mul- 
titude of  worshippers  wei'e  accustomed  to  pray,  while  incense  was  burn- 
ed ;  Luke  1:  10.  The  Dat.  rcdg  7ZQoaev)[aig  x.  t.  X,  I  regard  as  a  Dat. 
indicating  the  manner  or  the  circumstances  in  which  the  incense  is  pre- 
sented. It  is  accompanied  by  the  prayers  of  the  saints.  It  goes  up 
befoi'e  God,  bearing  along  Avith  it  on  its  fragrant  clouds  (so  to  speak) 
the  prayers  of  persecuted  Christians.  It  is  the  angel-intercessor  who 
presents  these  ;  see  Exc.  I.  Good  Angels,  No.  6.  No  sei'ious  difficulty 
exists,  when  the  passage  is  viewed  in  this  light. 

Ewald  understands  the  Dat.  nQoaevj^uTg  to  be  here  a  Dativus  commodL 
This  would  vary  the  shade  of  the  meaning,  but  not  the  substance.  As 
he  paraphrases  it  the  sentiment  would  run  thus  :  '  Much  incense  is 
placed  on  the  altar,  to  aid  the"  prayers  of  all  the  saints,  i.  e.  to  render 
them  more  acceptable  to  God.'  On  the  whole  I  prefer  the  other  inter- 
pretation as  agreeing  best  with  Rev.  5:  8.  The  Exc.  named  above  will 
show  the  reader  how  common  the  idea  of  angel-intercessors  Avas  among 
the  Jews,  who  were  supposed  by  them  to  present  the  prayers  of  the 
pious  to  God. 

(4)  And  the  smoke  of  the  incense,  with  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  went  up  from 
the  hand  of  the  angel  before  God. 

The  angel  is  supposed  to  take  his  stand  by  the  altar  of  incense,  and 
to  set  down  his  censer  upon  it,  but  still  to  keep  hold  of  the  vessel  with 
his  hand,  while  the  fire,  which  is  put  to  the  contents  of  the  censer, 
sends  up  volumes  of  sweet  vapour  or  smoke  from  the  hand  of  the  angel 
thus  continuing  his  hold  upon  the  censer. 

Having  completed  the  symbol  of  the  intercession,  the  author  now 
proceeds  to  exhibit  another  symbol,  indicative  of  the  consequences 
which  would  follow. 

(5)  And  the  angel  took  the  censer  and  filled  it  from  the  fire  of  the  altar,  and  he 
cast  [the  fire]  upon  the  earth ;  and  there  were  loud  thunders,  and  liglitnings,  and 
earthquake. 

ED.>j(fev  used  as  Aorist ;  see,  on   this  use,  the  remarks  under  5:  7. 


FIRST  TRUMPET  :   ClIAP.  VITT.  G,  7.  183 

The  model  of  this  symbol  is  in  Ezek.  10:  2  seq. ;  where,  however,  the 
fire  is  taken  from  between  the  eherubim  under  the  throne,  and  scattered 
over  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  as  an  emblem  of  its  destruction.  So  here  ; 
the  fire  from  the  altar,  cast  down  upon  the  earth,  of  course  indicates 
that  the  land  on  which  it  falls  is  to  be  consumed  or  destroyed.  The 
additional  symbols  of  thunder,  lightning,  and  earthquake,  leave  no 
room  for  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  this  symbolical  ti'ansaction.  The 
prayers  of  the  saints  are  accej)ted  ;  consequently  the  power  of  persecu- 
tors is  about  to  come  to  an  end. — qooval  y.ai  ^qovzui,  see  on  4:  5. 

(6)  And  the  seven  angels,  wlio  had  the  seven  trumpets,  made  themselves  ready 
that  they  might  sound  [them]. 

Hzoinuaav  iaviov'i,  i.  e.  assumed  the  attitude  of  readiness,  to  blow 
the  trumpet. — "ira  aaXniabaai  =  acO.niXt.iv ;  sec  Gramm.  §  1G2.  3. 
Note  2.  The  Aor.  form  here  used  belongs  to  the  later  Greek;  old 
Aor.  Subj.  aa'kni'y'^w. 

After  the  indications  thus  given,  as  to  what  the  will  of  Heaven  was 
in  respect  to  persecutors,  no  further  delay  was  to  be  expected.  All  is 
now  ready  for  the  commencement  of  final  action. 

(7)  And  the  first  [angel]  sounded,  and  tliere  was  hail  and  fire  mingled  with 
blood,  and  they  were  cast  upon  the  earth  ;  and  the  third  part  of  the  earth  was 
burned  up,  and  the  third  part  of  the  trees  was  burned  up,  and  all  the  green  grass 
was  burned  up. 

The  passage  of  the  O.  Testament  which  closely  resembles  this,  is  in 
Ex.  9:  22—25,  comp.  Ps.  78:  47,  48.  In  Ex.  9:  24  it  is  said,  that 
" fire  was  mingled  with  the  hail."  But  here  "the  hail  and  fire  are 
mingled  with  blood."  By  hlood  we  must  naturally  understand,  in  this 
case,  a  shower  of  coloured  rain,  i.  e.  rain  of  rubedinous  aspect ;  an  oc- 
cuiTence  which  is  known  sometimes  to  take  place,  and  which,  like  fall- 
ing stars,  eclipses,  etc.,  was  viewed  with  terror  by  the  ancients,  because 
it  was  supposed  to  be  indicative  of  blood  to  be  shed.  The  neut.  plur. 
fieftiyfit'va  follows  (as  often  in  such  cases)  the  gender  of  the  nearest 
noun,  nvn;  the  sing,  number  could  not  be  used  here,  because  the  parti- 
ciple refers  both  to  yd).u^(c  and  nvn. — E^Xi'j&ij,  i.  e.  the  mixture,  iinfny- 
in'vu,  was  cast  upon  the  earth  ;  or  t^hl&ij  may  be  connected  in  syntax 
with  the  nearest  of  the  two  nouns,  nvQ ;  as  is  often  the  case,  even  when 
tiie  verb  relates  to  two  or  more  subjects,  while,  in  respect  to  form  or 
number,  it  conforms  only  to  the  last  of  the  two. 

7o  tqi'tov  .  .  .  y.aTf:y.(a;,  evidently  a  dcfini^  quantity  for  a  conjsidera- 
t>le  one.  Tlie  use  of  this  number  (a  third)  is  very  frequent  in  the 
.^ocalypse  ;  see  in  vs.  8 — 12,  also  9:  15^  18.  VH  4r~"jiul  such  a  usage 
is  not  new.  The  model  is  in  Ezek.  5:  2,  12.  So  in  Zccli.  13:  8,  9. 
The  same  usage  is  common  in  the  Kabbinrc  writingi.     The  herbs  and 


184  SECOND  AND  THIRD  TRUMPET  :    ChAP.    VIII.  8 — 11. 

trees  are  here  mentioned  as  being  destroyed  by  the  hail  and  fire,  just  as 
in  Ex.  9:  25. 

(8)  And  the  second  angel  sounded,  and  as  it  were  a  great  mountain  burning 
with  fire  was  cast  into  the  sea;  and  a  third  part  of  the  sea  became  blood. 

The  image  here  is  that  of  a  volcanic  mountain  cast  into  the  ocean,  by 
which  the  waters  are  discoloured,  or  turned  red.  The  original  of  this 
picture  in  the  main  is  in  Ex.  7:  20 — 25.  But  the  image  of  the  hurning 
mountain  is  new,  and  approjpriate  to  John. 

(9)  And  a  third  part  of  the  creatures  in  tiie  sea,  which  have  life,  perished ;  and 
a  tJiird  part  of  the  ships  were  destroyed. 

Comp.  Ex.  7:  21  for  the  first  part  of  this  verse. — Ta  vfovra  here  is 
the  neuter  plural  Nom.  agreeing  with  v.rio\x.arav  Gen.  plural.  Such  a 
construction  in  Si  jjcirticijnal  clause  is  quite  common  ;  see  Gramm.  §  72. 1. 

To  TQizov  Twv  nlomv  diecpOuQijaav.  Here  the  third  pers.  plur.  of 
the  verb  is  employed,  because  tqizov  is  a  generic  noun.  This  imagery 
is  peculiar  to  John,  and  is  not  found  in  Ex.  7:  20 — 25. — A  third  part  is 
designated,  in  this  case,  with  the  same  meaning  as  before.  The  whole 
symbol  imports,  that  destruction  awaits  the  persecutors  of  the  church, 
on  the  sea  as  well  as  on  the  land. 

(10)  And  the  third  angel  sounded,  and  there  fell  from  heaven  a  great  star, 
burning  like  a  lamp ;  and  it  fell  upon  a  third  part  of  the  rivers,  and  upon  the 
fountains  of  the  waters. 

The  image  of  falling  stars  we  have  already  found,  in  6:  13.  These 
were  apparently  smaller  bodies  than  the  burning  mountain,  and  so  might 
fall  into  rivers  and  fountains.  That  the  writer  had  a  comet  here  in 
view,  as  Eichhorn  and  Heinrichs  suppose,  does  not  seem  to  be  proba- 
ble. The  image  is  taken  from  the  blazing  meteors,  which  often  appear 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  which  do  actually  fall  upon  the  earth.  But  the 
mischief  which  the  star  occasions,  in  this  case,  is  an  idea  that  is  purely 
poetic. 

(11)  And  the  name  of  the  star  is  called  Wornuoood  ;  and  a  third  part  of  the  wa- 
ters become  wormwood,  and  many  men  died  by  reason  of  the  waters,  because 
they  were  bitter. 

The  poisonous  quality  ascribed  to  the  star-in  this  case,  seems  to  re- 
sult from  a  designed  analogy  to  the  effects  of  the  second  trumpet,  where 
the  waters  are  turned  to  blood.  Here  the  quality  of  the  waters  into 
which  the  star  falls,  becomes  such  as  is  found  at  times  in  the  desert  and 
mo|asses,  of  which  unwary  and  thirsty  travellers  sometimes  drink  so  as 
to  bring  on  dangerous  diseases.  How  one  star  could  affect  so  m^iy 
rivers  and  fountains,  it  would  hardly  belong  even  to  the  rhetorician  to 
inquire  ;  for  in  such  a  poetic  representation  as  this,  a  liberty  of  ,,su9h  a 


MtHiT^tGgy 


FOURTH  TRUMPET  :  Chap.  VIII.  12.  185 

nature  is  notliing  stran<Tc.  Evidently  the  author  supposes  the  star  to 
have  fallen  upon  the  sources  of  springs  and  rivers. 

'0  difmOos'  is  anomalous  in  respect  to  gender,  for  in  common  Greek 
usage  it  hfi'inhiiiw.  But  as  the  herb  uiNvC^oi;  is  not  here  meant,  but  a 
^<ar,  it  is  probable  tliat  the  change  of  gender  is  a  matter  of  design. 
Moreover  it  is  not  very  common  to  put  the  article  before  the  noun  which 
follows  a  verb  of  naming ;  but  still,  this  usage  is  sometimes  followed 
even  in  the  classics,  as  well  as  in  this  book ;  see  Gramm.  §  89.  7.  The 
Hebrew  word  n:?3  (Prov.  5:  4)  is  rendered  dxihv&iov  by  Atpiila;  and 
the  poisonous  elVects  of  this  herb  may  be  seen  by  comi)aring  Jer.  9:  15. 
23:  15.  Lam.  3:  15,  19.  Deut.  29:  18.  Heb.  12:  15.  See  also  in  Ex. 
15:  23,  where  the  waters  of  Marah  (bitterness)  are  represented  as  not 
being  drinkable.  Of  the  poisonous  quality  of  the  uxl'ivQo^  here  named, 
there  can  be  no  doubt ;  that  is,  no  doubt  can  be  entertained,  that  the 
author  viewed  the  subject  in  this  light. 

The  destruction  of  men  commences  with  this  third  trumpet ;  but  only 
in  a  moderate  degree.  Only  one  third  part  of  the  rivers  and  fountains 
are  poisoned  by  the  star  ;  and  only  noXXni  twp  uvO^qcottoov,  who  drank 
of  these,  are  destroyed,  i.  e.  as  we  say,  ?7iany  persons,  a  considerable 
number,  perished. 

(12)  And  the  fourth  angel  sounded,  and  a  third  part  of  the  sun,  and  a  third 
part  of  the  moon,  and  a  third  part  of  the  stars,  was  smitten,  in  order  that  a  third 
part  of  them  might  be  darkened,  and  the  day  might  not  shine  as  to  a  third  part 
thereof,  and  the  night  likewise. 

The  original  of  this  picture  may  be  found  in  Ex.  10:  21 — 23.  But 
here  are  special  characteristics  which  belong  to  the  author  only.  A 
third  part  of  all  the  luminaries  being  eclipsed,  a  gloomy  and  ominous 
light  would  of  course  be  diffused  over  the  earth,  which  would  fill  the  in- 
habitants with  consternation ;  as  eclipses  always  did  in  former  times, 
whether  partial  or  total.  The  idea  is  not,  that  one  third  i)art  of  the 
time  or  length  of  the  day,  etc.,  was  totally  dark — but  that  the  lumina- 
ries by  day  and  night  were  shorn  of  one  third  part  of  their  usual  splen- 
dour ;  although,  at  first  view,  the  latter  part  of  the  verse  would  seem  to 
intimate  the  former  meaning, 

7/  ijitiQa  ...  TO  TQirov  avT^^',  i.  e.  as  to  a  third  part  of  its  accustom- 
ed light.  To  TQt'zop  avrfjg  is  epexegetical,  and  is  to  be  considered  as  in 
the  Ace.  abs.  adverbial. — Kui  ij  vv^  oftoicog,  i.  e.  nai  ij  vv^  [fi^  q)atvr]  to 
rnlznv  avi^fq]  ofwi'wi;,  the  phrase  being  brachylogical  or  elliptic.  The 
meaning  is,  that  the  moon  and  stars,  which  give  light  by  night,  were 
deprived  of  one  third  part  of  it,  in  like  manner  as  the  sun,  so  that  the 
night  had  but  two  thirds  of  its  usual  light. 

Thus  are  completed  the  four  preparatory  symbols,  which  annoy  and 
terrify  men,  rather  than  destroy  them  to  any  great  extent.     But  the 

VOL.  II.  ^  24 


186  FIRST  WOE-TRTJMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  1 — 12. 

execution  of  divine  justice  is  now  to  commence,  witli  deeper  tones  of  in- 
dignation and  scourges  more  highly  lifted  up.  Yet  before  this  is  done, 
a  herald,  flying  through  mid-air,  makes  a  solemn  proclamation  to  the 
world  of  that  which  is  about  to  take  place. 

(13)  And  I  looked,  and  1  lieard  an  eagle,  flying  in  mid-air,  saying  with  a  loud 
voice  :  Woe  !  woe  !  woe  !  to  those  who  dwell  in  the  land,  by  reason  of  the  remain- 
ing sounds  of  the  trumpet  of  the  three  angels  who  are  yet  to  sound. 

'Evog,  used  as  a  pronoun  indefinite  ;  see  on  eig  under  5:  5. — J4e70v, 
an  eagle.  But  does  this  mean  merely  the  bird  itself?  Or  does  the  au- 
thor intend  to  signify,  that  an  angel,  moving  as  swiftly  as  an  eagle, 
flies,  or  with  wings  like  an  eagle's,  passes,  through  the  air?  The  lat- 
ter, I  doubt  not ;  for  the  writer  immediately  says :  )JyovTog  Cfsavij  ^f.yu- 
Irj  -A.  T.  X.  This  would  be  incongruous,  in  case  we  consider  dstov  as  a 
mere  bird.  In  Is.  21:  8,  the  watchman  cries  out  n.''"ix,  i.  e.  as  a  lion, 
for  it  is  the  Ace.  of  manner,  quasi  lion-ivise.  Here  the  angel,  furnished 
Avith  eagle-tvings,  (the  swiftest  and  most  powerful  of  all  wings),  moves 
through  mid-air  solemnly  to  proclaim  the  approaching  catastrophe,  so 
as  to  inspire  terror,  and  give  warning  to  all. — MsoovQuv/jfiazt,  usually 
the  meridian,  but  here  plainly  the  mid-air.  OvQctvog,  like  Ci';''?'^ ,  fre- 
quently means  the  air,  i.  e.  the  space  between  the  sky  and  the  earth. 
Borne  aloft,  then,  midway  between  earth  and  sky,  this  heavenly  mes- 
senger proclaims  to  the  world  the  approaching  doom  of  persecutors. 


FIRST  WOE-TRUMPET :  CHAP.  IX.  1—12. 

[The  three  remaining  trumpets  are  usually  designated  by  the  name  of  the  xcoe- 
truvipets,  in  reference  to  the  proclamation  of  woes,  as  mentioned  in  8:  13.  The 
nature  oi' the  first  woe  may  be  explained  in  a  few  words. 

In  the  eastern  world,  over  most  of  the  countries  of  hither  Asia,  the  appearance 
of  locusts  in  great  numbers  was  witli  good  reason  dreaded  as  a  great  calamity. 
Drought,  famine,  and  pestilence,  were  the  usual  accompaniments.  Drought 
favoured  the  multiplication  and  progress  of  the  locusts ;  famine  was  the  neces- 
sary consequence  of  their  destroying  all  vegetation  ;  and  pestilence  was  bred  by 
the  destruction  (sooner  or  later)  of  unnumbered  multitudes  of  these  rapacious  and 
fetid  animals.  A  most  vivid  and  glowing,  as  well  as  sublime,  description  of  an 
invasion  by  locusts,  is  given  by  Joel  in  chap.  ii.  His  excited  imagination  views 
them  as  advancing  like  a  mighty  overwhelming  army,  covering  every  part  of  the 
land,  thrusting  themselves  into  every  habitation,  and  spreading  destruction  on 
every  side.  Their  noise  is  like  that  of  chariots  upon  the  mountain  tops;  all  faces 
turn  pale  ;  the  earth  quakes  before  them  ;  the  sun  and  moon  are  darkened  ;  the 
stars  withdraw  their  light;  the  Almighty  God  marches  at  the  head  of  this  his 
countless  host,  clothed  with  terror;  the  great  and  terrible  day  of  his  judgment  is 
come.  The  garden  of  Eden  is  before  this  army  as  they  advance,  an4  behind 
them  a  desolate  wilderness. 

• 


i 


FIRST  woE-TRijrrET :  Crap.  IX.  1 — 12.  *     161 

Many  traits  of  tliis  vivid  picture  by  Joi-l^nro  transferred  to  the  description  now 
before  us.  Yet  lliere  is  nolliing  timt  borders  on  mere  imitation  in  our  nulhor. 
Besides  a  reffiird  to  the  representation  of  Joel,  it  is  manifest  that  Joiin's  mind  is 
also  affected  by  a  view  of  the  nintii  plajjue  of  Egypt,  i.  e.  the  plague  of  the  locusts, 
as  exhibited  in  Kx.  10:  12 — !'>.  But  there,  as  well  as  in  the  prophet  Joel,  the 
locusts  are  presented  in  their  appropriate  and  natural  character,  viz.,  as  consum- 
ers or  destroyers  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  earth.  But  this  is  not  their 
office  in  tlie  Apocalypse.  The  writer  had  already  (6:  5 — 7)  introduced /rtwJKc  as 
one  of  the  judgments  which  is  connected  with  the  breaking  of  the  tliird  seal. 
His  present  object  is,  to  designate  the  punishment  more  immediately  inflicted 
upon  the  persons  of  men. 

In  accordance  with  this  design,  the  locusts  are  not  commissioned  against  the 
trees  and  herbage  (!):  4),  but  to  injure  those  "  who  have  not  the  seal  of  God  upon 
their  foreheads."  For  the  accomplishment  of  this  end,  they  are  furnished  with 
teeth  like  those  of  a  lion  (v.  f^),  and  with  a  sting  in  their  tails  like  that  of  a 
scorpion  (v.  10).  In  this  respect,  therefore,  thej*  are  peculiar  to  our  author,  and 
entirely  a  conception  of  his  own  ;  although  many  traits  of  the  picture  resemble 
those  found  in  the  descriptions  of  locusts  exhibited  by  other  writers.  Yet,  lest 
the  final  catastrophe  should  be  hastened  faster  than  the  plan  of  the  writer  admits, 
the  wounds  which  they  inflict  are  not  mortal,  (for  how  then  should  any  escape 
with  life?)  but  only  painful  in  the  extreme,  occasioning  agony  like  that  which  a 
scorpion  inflicts  when  he  strikes  a  man,  v.  5. 

To  make  the  description  more  terrific,  these  new  and  unheard  of  armies  of  lo- 
custs are  not  the  offspring  of  those  which  are  produced  in  the  natural  course  of 
thincs,  but  Ihey  come  from  the  principal  source  and  seat  of  all  that  is  evil  and 
abominable  and  dreadful — from  the  botlomless  pit  or  uhijss,  where  Satan  and  evil 
spirits  reign.  That  horrid  place  is  fraught  with  all  that  can  hurt  or  destroy  men; 
and  when  once  it  is  unlocked,  there  issues  from  it,  in  one  form  or  another,  monstra 
iri^rntia,  mulrftra,  to  plague  and  to  lay  waste  the  earth.  In  the  present  case, 
ApoUyon  himself,  i.  e.  "'.t^S  or  tlic  Drstroyrr,  leads  on  and  directs  the  hosts  of 
tormentors,  commissioned  against  the  enemies  of  the  church.  Their  commission, 
however,  is  but  for  a  short  time.  As  common  locusts  perform  their  work  of  de- 
struction in  about  five  months,  and  then  die  off  or  remove,  so,  in  order  that  some 
general  analogy  maybe  presented,  the  author  limits  the  time  of  the  locusts,  which 
issue  from  the  abyss,  to  the  same  period.  The  number  of  months  need  not  be  lite- 
rally understood  ;  it  should  be  taken  in  a  symbolical  sense  ;  and  as  meaning  but 
a  comparatively  short  period.  The  shape  of  the  sentiment  seems  to  be  plainly 
thus  :  '  As  the  natural  locusts  commit  their  ravages  only  for  five  months,  so  tlie 
ravages  of  these  symbolical  ones  will  be  only  for  a  short  period.' 

One  other  remark  is  proper.  As  the  author  has  here  plainly  gone  out  of  the 
world  of  nature  into  that  of  imagination,  in  order  to  obtain  materials  wherewith 
he  may  draw  hi.s  picture,  so  we  are  not  to  tax  him  with  incongruities  or  monstros- 
ities, because  he  does  not  confine  himself  within  the  bounds  of  natural  verisimili- 
tude. Beings  purely  imaginary  in  some  respects  he  means  to  present;  beings 
endowed  with  powers  unknown  in  the  natural  world  his  imagination  forms;  and 
to  compare  tlie  progeny  thus  ushered  into  symbolical  existence  with  simple  and 
mere  natural  objects,  would  be  most  evidently  to  do  him  injustice.  That  he 
should  make  his  own  picture  consistent  with  itself,  and  even  preserve  natural  ve- 
risimilitude where  he  can  do  so  without  marring  his  own  particular  design,  is  all 
that  we  can  reasonably  demand  of  him  in  a  case  of  this  nature.  And  this  demand 
he  has  met  and  satisfied. 


188  FIRST  WOE-TUUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  1. 

Allowing,  now,  that  the  general  view  here  taken  of  the  plague  of  the  locusts  is 
correct,  it  follows  that  all  attempts  historically  to  apply  this  part  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse to  the  Zealots  in  Judea,  as  Eichhorn,  Heinrichs,  and  some  others  have 
done,  are  quite  out  of  place.  They  appeal  to  the  history  of  the  Sicarii  in  Jose- 
phus.  Bell.  Jud.  II.  17.  IV.  7.  V.  2,  in  confirmation  of  their  views.  But  one  cir- 
cumstance alone  is  enough  to  remove  all  probability  from  their  interpretation  ; 
which  is,  that  the  locusts  are  not  commissioned  to  kilt,  but  only  to  plague  men. 
Did  not  that  band  of  Assassins,  the  Zealots,  /iill  men  as  well  as  plague  thein  .'' 
Was  not  death  the  usual  consequence  of  provoking  their  enmity  .'  Besides,  who 
could  expect,  after  all  which  has  of  late  been  done  to  cast  light  on  the  general  na- 
ture of  the  apocalyptic  symbols,  to  find  such  writers  as  Eichhorn,  Herder,  and 
Heinrichs,  making  such  a  specific  and  individual  historical  application  of  it  .-* 
The  case  before  us  is  one  which  is  specially  fitted,  to  show  the  incongruity  of  such 
a  method  of  exegesis.] 

(1)  And  the  fifth  angel  sounded,  and  I  saw  a  star  fallen  from  heaven  to  the 
earth  ;  and  there  was  given  to  him  the  key  of  the  bottomless  pit. 

To  call  an  angel  a  star,  is  not  new,  nor  without  precedent ;  although 
we  find  the  like  appellation,  when  given  to  rational  beings,  commonly 
in  th§  plural  number,  or  at  least  used  as  a  noun  of  multitude.  In  Job 
38:  7,  the  angels  are  called  the  morning  stars  ;  and  often  in  the  O.  Tes- 
tament, the  phrase  host  of  heaven,  'c'^'cxtn  X3:i,  means  the  angels,  as  in 
1  K  22:  19.  2  Chron.  18:  18.  Ps.  148:  2.  Josh.  5:  14 ;  and  often  it  al- 
so means  the  stars.  Is.  34:  4.  40:  26.  45:  12.  Jer.  33:  22.  These  pas- 
sages show,  that  these  two  very  different  classes  of  beings  were  still  oc- 
casionally designated  by  the  same  name.  Not  improbably  this  origi- 
nated in  part  from  the  supposition,  that  the  stars  had  their  appropriate 
guardian-angels,  so  that  the  same  name  might,  as  in  many  similar  cases, 
stand  for  both.  So  the  matter  seems  to  be  considered  and  treated  in  the 
book  of  Enoch  ;  which  in  18:  16,  says  :  "  The  stars  which  roll  over  fire, 
are  those  which  transgressed  the  commandment  of  God  .  .  .  for  they 
came  not  in  their  proper  season."  The  like  also  in  chap.  21:  3 — 6.  85: 
1 — 87:  5.  89:  32,  33.  All  these  passages,  taken  as  a  whole,  make  the 
usage  in  question  quite  clear.  By  a  figure  similar  to  this  in  Rev.  4:  5, 
the  presence-angels  are  called  burning  lamps  ;  and  in  Is.  6:  2,  the  fi'^S'nia 
probably  have  their  name  from  ri'na ,  ardere,  and  so  cS'^'i^  means  arden- 
tes  or  lucentes.  In  all  these  cases  one  simple  idea  lies  at  the  basis,  viz., 
that  of  splendour,  resplendence.  But  the  epithet  stars  is  the  noblest  and 
most  significant  of  all. 

That  star  means  angel,  in  the  text  before  us,  is  sufiiciently  plain  from 
the  sequel :  The  hey  of  the  bottomless  pit  was  given  to  him  ;  surely  not 
to  a  literal  star,  for  this  would  be  such  an  incongruity  as  cannot  well  be 
imagined,  and  certainly  not  to  be  charged  upon  John,  so  long  as  any 
other  i:ational  exegesis  is  practicable. 

KXeig,  keg,  the  ensign  of  power  in  cases  like  that  in  Rev.  3:  7  ;  but 
here,  a  kind  of  literal  sense  is  appropriate.     The  abyss  is  regarded  as 


FIRST  WOE-TRUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  2.  189 

locked  up,  in  order  to  prevent  its  contents  from  emerging  and  destroy- 
ing the  eartli.  Its  mouth  is  here  jsupposed  to  be  narrow,  like  that  of  a 
well  or  cistern ;  and  then  it  is  also  closed  by  a  curb  and  door  (after  the 
same  similitude),  to  which  a  lock  making  it  secure  is  attached.  The 
angel  who  descends  as  the  minister  of  divine  justice,  is  commissioned  to 
unlock  or  open  the  mouth  of  the  great  abyss,  in  order  that  the  ensuing 
plague  might  come  forth,  and  overspread  the  land.  Like  images  in  re- 
spect to  the  condition  of  Sheol  may  be  found  in  Ps.  30:  10  (9).  Is.  14: 
15.  Is.  5:  14,  and  in  Enoch  54:  12.  As  to  the  doors  or  gates  of  the 
under-world,  comp,  Ps.  9:  13.  Is.  38:  10.  Matt.  16:  18.  Rev.  20: 
1—3. 

Tov  qnt'uTo^,  pit,  well,  is  sufficiently  explained  by  what  has  already 
been  said  respecting  the  entrance  to  the  great  abyss  or  under-world, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  narrow,  and  to  terminate,  at  the  entrance  into 
the  upper-world,  by  a  door  or  gates. — T/y^*  d(iva6ov,  i.  e.  rij^  d^vcraov 
^cor)«s",  for  the  word  d^ivaaog  is  an  adjective  in  itself.  However,  it  is 
here  and  elsewhere  employed  as  a  noun.  It  means  bottomless,  ovjwith- 
oiit  bottom,  i.  e.  that  which  is  so  deep  that  it  cannot  be  sounded  or  mea- 
sured, extending  downwards  indefinitely  into  the  bosom  of  the  earth. 

From  this  dreary  region,  the  place  to  which  evil  spirits  are  sometimes 
sent,  when  they  are  confined  and  subjected  to  any  special  punishment, 
(Rev.  20:  1—3.  Luke  8:  31.  2  Pet.  2:  4),  the  plague  of  the  locusts  is- 
sues. And  certainly  all  this  is  very  appropriate  to  the  writer's  purpose. 
The  dread  of  such  a  plague,  issuing  from  such  a  place,  must  naturally  be 
supposed  to  be  very  great. 

(2)  And  he  opened  the  bottomless  pit;  and  there  went  up  a  smoke  from  the 
pit,  like  the  smoke  of  a  great  furnace,  and  the  sun  was  darkened,  and  the  air,  by 
the  smoke  of  the  pit. 

Kanvog  uri\St].  The^pular  ideas  of  Hades  or  the  great  Abyss  were 
perhaps  formed  from,  or  aTTeast  produced  by,  well  known  facts  respect- 
ing volcanoes,  which  throw  up  an  immense  mass  of  fire  from  the  bowels 
of  the  earth ;  for  such  facts  must  have  been  well  known  all  around  the 
Mediterranean,  Avhere  was  an  Etna  and  a  Vesuvius,  and  in  more  ancient 
times,  not  improbably  many  smaller  volcanoes.  It  does  not  contradict 
this  idea,  that  the  under-world  was  also  conceived  of  as  being  a  place  of 
extreme  darkness ;  e.  g.  Job  10:  21,  22,  where  this  is  stated  with  great 
force;  Ps.  88:  12.  So  fitmeus  Acheron,  in  Val.  Flacc.  4.  595.  Sheol 
was  conceived  of  as  being  immense  in  its  extent,  and  having,  like  many 
caves  in  the  earth  into  which  men  can  enter,  various  sinuosities  and 
apartments  branching  off,  into  which  the  fires  in  another  and  different 
place  could  not  throw. their  gleams.  Besides,  here  was  confined  tlie  dark 
conglomerated  smoke  that  issued  from  the  fire,  and  which  would  con- 
tribute much  to  augment  the  general  gloom;  comp.  Rev.  14:  11,  "  The 


190  FIRST  WOE-TRUMPET :  Chap.  IX.  3,  4. 

smoke  of  their  torments  ascendeth  up  forever  and  ever,"  i.  e.  the  smoke 
which  torments  them,  or  which  arises  from  their  tormenting  fire,  is  al- 
ways ascending,  or  is  never  discontinued.  But  in  this  under- world,  the 
condition  of  all  was  not  supposed  to  be  the  same.  In  some  respects,  in- 
deed, there  was  not  even  a  resemblance.  In  a  world  so  immense,  there 
was  naturally  supposed  to  be  room  for  a  great  diversity  of  situation. 
That  part  of  the  under-world,  however,  where  Satan  and  his  coadjutors 
dwelt,  or  at  least  where  they  were  occasionally  confined,  was  a  mixture 
of  darkness  and  smoke  and  fires  that  were  in  a  measure  occult  for  want 
of  access  to  the  air  ;  and  consequently  the  idea  of  the  u^vooog  in  which 
Satan  dwelt,  is  one  fraught  with  terror  and  disgust. 

I  have  dwelt  more  particularly  on  the  explanation  of  this,  because 
Bochart  (Hieroz.  II.  p.  495)  explains  the  smoke  in  this  case,  by  a  refer- 
ence to  the  fires  which  the  husbandmen  kindle  in  order  to  destroy  the 
locusts  ;  and  Eichhorn,  by  a  reference  to  the  clouds  of  locusts  so  dense 
and  large,  that  they  cut  off  the  light  of  the  sun,  like  the  thickest  smoke 
in  the  atmosphere.  Both  explanations  seem  to  me  quite  inept ;  they 
are  in  fact  incongruous  with  the  representation  of  the  author. 

That  the  sun  and  air  were  darkened,  is  a  natural  consequence  of  such 
a  volume  of  smoke  as  is  here  described. 

(3)  And  from  the  smoke  issued  forth  locusts  upon  the  earth,  and  power  was 
given  to  them,  as  the  scorpions  of  the  earth  have  power. 

Here  the  locusts  are  presented,  not  as  causing  the  smoke  or  darkness, 
as  Eichhorn  supposes,  but  as  issuing  from  the  smoke.  Having  dwelt  in 
it  while  in  the  abyss,  they  come  forth  along  Avith  it  from  the  mouth  of 
the  pit ;  a  spectacle  truly  of  horror,  and  more  especially  so,  as  they  are 
not  locusts  of  the  ordinary  kind,  which  have  little  or  no  power  to  harm 
men,  but  are  armed  with  stings  like  those  of  scoi'pions  ;  for  this  is  meant 
by  saying,  that  they  have  power  like  that  of  scorpions,  comp.  vs.  4,  5.  It 
is  indeed  true,  that  locusts  often  appear  in  the  oriental  regions,  in  such 
numbers  as  to  darken  the  air,  and  cut  off  the  light  of  the  sun  ;  comp. 
Ex.  10:  15.  Joel  2:  2,  10  ;  yet  such  is  not  the  nature  of  the  representa- 
tion here. 

Ol  ay.OQnioi  t//s  yri^,  land-scorpions,  so  named  here,  in  distinction 
from  the  so-called  sea-scorpions,  described  by  Bochart,  Hieroz.  II.  p.  635. 

(4)  And  it  was  said  to  them,  that  they  should  not  hurt  the  grass  of  the  earth, 
nor  any  green  herb,  nor  any  tree,  but  the  men  who  have  not  the  seal  of  God  upon 
their  foreheads. 

Common  locusts  destroy  every  kind  of  vegetation  ;  and  with  this  their 
power  of  active  injury  ceases.  Grass,  trees,  and  every  species  of  plant, 
fall  before  them,  i.  e.  they  are  stripped  of  every  leaf  and  bud,  and  often 
even  decorticated.     But  these  locusts  from  the  bottomless  pit,  k  yivog 


IF 

FIRST  WOE-TRUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  5,  6.  191 


veov  xai  nuQado^oi;  are  designeolWiccomplish  an  object  wholly  differ- 
ent. Passing  by  the  natural  productions  of  the  earth,  their  appropriate 
food,  human  beings  become  the  objects  of  their  attack. 

jU'ter  ft  fii,  the  verb  ddixijacoat  must  be  mentally  supplied — thei/ 
should  not  hurt  the  grass,  tic,  but  [should  injure]  men,  etc.  This  idiom 
in  respect  to  «i  fit}  is  quite  common  in  the  N.  Testament ;  e.  g.  in  Luke 
4:  26,  ti  fdj  [fVi/Tt'j/cjri^/;]  ei\'  ^^donTTTa',  4:  27,  ti  fUj  [fx«i>«(»tr7v>/;]  Ati- 
ftuv.  John  17:  12,  ti  iti;  [rt;TwP.f:zo]  o  vi6i»  T//i,'  «;ra)/.£t'«s,'.  And  so  often- 
times  al.  loc. 

('))  And  it  was  given  to  tlicni,  tJiat  they  should  not  kill  them,  but  that  they 
should  be  tormented  five  months ;  and  their  torment  was  like  the  torment  of  a 
scorpion  when  he  striketh  a  man. 

In  what  way  this  injury  was  to  be  inflicted,  is  not  here  said ;  but  it 
may  be  found  in  v.  10  below — f^ovG(v  ovqu's  oiioiag  gxoqtti'oi^.  Even 
the  wounds  of  scorpions  are  not  usually  fatal,  unless  they  are  neglected  ; 
but  the  poison  is  so  acrid,  that  it  occasions  great  agony.  Like  to  this 
are  the  images  of  the  hornet,  the  bee,  and  the  wasp,  in  the  O.  "Jtesta- 
ment;  e.  g.  Deut.  7:  20.  Ex.  23:  28.  Joshua  24:  12.  Dent.  1:  44.  Ps. 
118:  12.  Nor  is  the  scorpion,  as  the  symbol  of  atrocious  and  merciless 
men,  a  new  image ;  see  Ezek.  2:  6 ;  comp.  Bochart,  Hieroz.  IL  pp. 
632 — 645. — Uaiaii,  may  strike,  in  reference  to  the  vehement  thrust  of 
the  scorpion's  tail,  when  it  inserts  its  sting. 

J>7/]rrts"  Jiivre.  The  usual  time  of  locusts  is  from  May  to  September 
inclusively  =  five  months.  Here  the  natural  traits  of  the  locusts'  his- 
tory are  preserved.  The  meaning  must  be,  a  short  period.  As  to  the 
designation  of  jive  months,  rather  than  of  any  other  small  number,  it  is 
enough  to  say,  that  it  is  a  period  which  is  doubtless  chosen  in  reference 
to  the  usual  period  of  the  locusts'  depredations. 

(6)  In  those  days  men  shall  seek  death,  and  shall  not  find  it,  yea  they  shall 
long  to  die,  but  death  shall  flee  from  them. 

As  to  the  fact,  that  distress  or  agony  may  be  such,  that  death  will  be 
earnestly  desired,  it  is  a  matter  of  almost  every  day's  experience ; 
comp.  Jer.  8:  3,  and  Job  7:  10.  10:  1.  Kev.  6:  16,  17.  This  verse  sets 
forth  the  Saaunonog  in  a  very  vivid  manner,  and  shows  how  exceed- 
ingly intense  it  was. 

The  use  of  the  Fut.  tense  in  this  verse,  is  rather  striking.  Why 
does  the  writer  here  go  into  the  future,  when  he  represents  all  as  pass- 
ing under  his  own  eye  while  in  vision  or  ecstasy  ?  One  reason  may  be, 
the  length  of  the  period  which  here  intervenes  between  the  commence- 
ment and  completion  of  this  woe,  i.  e.  five  months.  It  is  certain  however, 
that  there  are  in  this  book,  as  is  common  everywhere  in  Hebrew  poetry, 
changes  of  tense  without  any  other  apparent  ground  than  for  the  sake 


192  FIRST  WOE-TRUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  7. 

of  variety.  They  may  be  the  result  of  a  natural  inclination  to  the 
Hebrew  usage ;  comp.  Rev.  chap,  xviii,  where  the  different  classes  of 
mournefs  over  the  same  event,  viz.  the  fall  of  Babylon,  make  use  of  the 
Fut.  tense,  v.  9  ;  of  the  Pres.  tense,  v.  11  ;  and  of  the  Praeterite,  v. 
17  ;  and  the  like  of  this  may  be  found  elsewhere.  But  in  the  present 
case,  what  is  now  described  is,  future  to  what  has  just  been  described; 
and  besides  this,  what  would  be  often  done,  on  a  condition  mentioned,  is 
here  set  forth.  The  Fut.  is  in  place. — fl^ev^Ezai,  Fut.  Midd.  used  as  a 
Fut.  Active  ;  and  this  is  the  case  in  regard  to  a  large  part  of  the  more 
usual  irregular  verbs,  such  as  £(/«',  Xufi^dvco,  ytyvojaxoj,  ■&vij6y.(j3,  yjuQO), 
'&avixd(^(x),  yehi03,  and  many  others  ;  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  60.  5.  Note. 

In  xal  ini&v^.,  aai  may  be  I'endered  as  intensive,  for  such  is  the  senti- 
ment ;  the  last  Kai  means  and  yet  or  but. 

(7)  And  the  forms  of  the  locusts  were  like  to  horses  ready  for  war ;  and  on 
their  heads,  as  it  were  crowns  like  to  gold ;  and  their  faces  like  the  faces  of  men. 

'Ofioia^ara,  like  the  Hebrew  ron'i  in  Ezek.  1:  16,  26,  stands  here 
in  the  sense  of  formae,  species,  and  denotes  a,  form  or  likeness  which  is 
to  be  compared  with  some  other  form  in  order  fully  to  perceive  its  true 
nature.  As  to  the  resemblance  of  the  locusts  in  itself  considered,  there 
might  easily  be  made  out  several  traits.  The  galloping  motion  of  the 
locust  is  one;  the  rictus  capitis  is  another;  the  rapid  movement  is  an- 
other ;  the  noise  made  in  eating  their  food  is  another ;  see  Bochart, 
Hieroz.  II.  p.  474  seq.  Oedmann,  Samml.  zur  Naturkunde,  Fascic. 
II.  pp.  76 — 149.  Volney,  Voyage  en  Syrie,  I.  p.  277.  Joel  has  pre- 
sented the  same  image  and  comparison,  in  2:  4.  In  each  of  the  three 
clauses  in  this  verse,  the  verb  of  existence  is  implied. 

Croivns  like  to  gold  probably  means  the  horns  (antlers,  feelers)  of  the 
locust,  tipped  with  yellow,  i.  e.  with  a  golden  colour ;  and  these  are 
in  all  probability  here  called  crowns,  to  show  that  they  are  emblems 
of  victorious  and  irresistible  march.  See  their  march  fully  described  in 
Joel  2:  7 — 9.  Eichhorn  and  Heinrichs  find  helmets  in  these  golden 
crowns.  But  the  explanation  just  given  is  adopted  by  Ewald,  and  it 
seems  most  natural  and  congruous.  In  Rev.  13:  1,  the  crowns  are  rep- 
resented as  on  the  ends  of  the  ten  horns.     So  probably  here. 

TlQoobina  dv\}Q(6nav  must  of  course  be  limited  to  some  particular 
features  only.  The  formation  and  prominence  of  the  eyes  and  of  the 
forehead  have  resemblance  to  those  of  men.  I  apprehend  the  meaning 
of  the  writer  to  be,  that  they  wore  the  aspect,  in  their  eyes  and  faces, 
of  truculent  and  ruthless  soldiers  in  battle. 


FIRST  WOE-TRUMPET :   ChAP.  IX.  8,  9.  19t 

(8)  And  they  had  hair  like  the  hair  of  women,  and  their  teeth  were  like  those 
of  lions. 

There  are  ft  grBat  many  species  of  locusts,  and  some  of  them  are 
hairy.  So  Jer.  51:  27,  "i-O  ph^  ,  the  locust  bristling  with  hair.  Eich- 
hornsays:  "  Coma  deest  in  veris  locustis ;"  in  which,  as  the  passaj^e 
just  quoted  shows,  he  was  much  mistaken.  Of  course  John  would 
here  choose  that  species  of  locust  for  comparison,  which  was  of  the 
most  atrocious  aspect. — il^  tqix^'»  yvyuixcov,  refers  of  course  to  the 
abundance.,  not  to  the  quality,  of  their  hair. 

'i:l'i).s6vTKiv  VfCtav  fiods  its  model  in  Joel  1:  C,  where  the  same  com- 
parison is  repeated  twice.  The  meaning  is,  that  the  teeth  are  such  as 
are  adapted  to  bite  and  wound  in  a  very  effectual  manner ;  for  such 
are  the  teeth  of  a  lion. 

(K)  And  they  had  breast-plates  like  iron  breast-plates;  and  the  noise  of  their 
wings  was  like  the  noise  of  many  chariots  of  horses  rushing  into  battle. 

The  breasts-plafes  are  to  be  refeiTed  here  to  the  hard  and  firm  cuticle 
on  the  fore-part  of  the  locust,  which  serves  as  a  shield  while  it  moves 
among  the  thorny  and  furzy  vegetation  ;  armavit  natura  cutem,  Clau- 
dian,  83.  2,  3. — The  noise  of  the  locusts  when  they  move,  is  spoken  of 
by  almost  all  travellers.     Joel  has  magnificently  described  it,  2:  4,  5. 

<I>(ovt]  aQudzcov  .  .  .  Fig  TTolefWv.  The  succession  of  Genitives  here 
somewhat  embarrasses  the  reader.  We  may  render  aQimrcov  innoiv,  by 
horse-chariots ;  for  these  are  distinguished  from  chariots  drawn  by 
mules,  or  other  beasts  of  burden ;  and  whether  we  take  unfxdrcov  or 
innav  as  an  adjective,  matters  not  as  to  the  substance  of  the  sense ; 
for  horse-chariots  and  chariots  of  horses,  i.  e.  drawn  by  horses,  are  the 
same.  Ewald  thinks  ijincov  spurious,  because  he  finds  difficulty  in 
making  out  an  appropriate  sense  from  it.  It  does  not  seem  to  me, 
however,  to  labour  viader  any  serious  difficulty.  There  is  still  another 
way  of  construing  the  sentence  :  Like  the  noise  of  chariots,  while  many 
horses  rush  into  the  battle  ;  thus  making  the  last  clause  a  Gen.  absolute. 
But  the  use  of  the  Gen.  absolute  in  this  book,  is  scarcely  to  be  found  ; 
and  if  adopted  here,  would  not  give  any  very  tolerable  sense.  There 
might  be  horses  rushing  to  battle  without  any  chariots,  i.  e.  cavalry  such 
as  is  usual.  The  real  idea  of  the  author  is  not  obscure  ;  and  it  is  given, 
as  it  seems  to  rae,  in  the  translation  above. 

Locusts,  while  they  are  young,  fly  but  short  distances  at  a  time,  like 
our  grass-hoppers  ;  but  when  fully  grown,  they  will  sustain  a  flight  of 
some  considerable  distance.  Their  wings  make  a  shrill  tinkling  noise  ; 
and  since  the  air  is  sometimes  filled  with  these  animals  so  thickly  that  day 
is  turned  into  night,  (which  is  really  the  case),  the  descriptions  in  Johq 
and  in  Joel  appear  very  appropriate  and  striking. 

VOL.  II.  25 


194  FIRST  woe-trumpet:  Chap.  IX.  10 — 12. 

(10)  And  they  have  tails  like  scorpions ;  and  stings  were  in  their  tails ;  and 
they  had  power  to  hurt  men  five  months. 

Here,  in  the  last  part  of  this  particular  description  of  the  locusts,  is 
developed  the  secret  of  their  power  to  injure  men,  already  adverted  to 
but  not  described  in  v.  5  above.  In  this  particular  they  differ  from 
natural  locusts,  and  disclose  their  origin  from  the  bottomless  pit.  The 
writer  does  not  tell  us,  on  what  they  are  supposed  to  feed ;  for  as  they 
are  the  progeny  of  the  Abyss,  they  do  not  need  the  food  of  natural 
locusts.  This  verse  is  a  resumption  of  the  action  of  the  piece  as  de- 
veloped in  V.  5,  which  had  been  suspended  a  while  for  the  sake  of  de- 
scribing the  extraordinary  nature  of  these  locusts.  The  reader  will 
note  the  historic  Pres.  in  syovGtv,  and  then  the  change  into  I'jv.  See 
Gramm.  §  136.  1.  b.  Note.     As  to  five  months,  see  on  v.  5. 

(11)  And  they  have  over  them  a  king,  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit;  his 
name  in  Hebrew  is  JJbaddon,  and  in  Greek  he  hath  the  name  JpoUyon. 

I'he  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit  would  seem  here  to  mean  Sammael, 
i.  e.  the  chief  of  the  evil  angels.  Abaddon  lit.  destruction  ;  but  here  it 
means  the  destroyer,  (abstract  being  put  for  concrete),  which  in  this  case 
is  an  appropriate  name.  In  Greek,  Apollyon  corresponds  and  is  equiv- 
alent. Abaddon  is  also  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Sheol ;  e.  g.  in 
Prov.  15:  11.  Job.  26:  6.  The  Hebrews  seem  to  have  denoted  by  it 
the  lowest  recesses  of  the  pit  or  great  abyss  ;  and  so  the  Rabbins  em- 
ployed the  word.  In  Joel,  the  Almighty  God  himself  leads  on  his 
great  army  (2:  11)  ;  but  here  the  king  of  the  abyss  is  the  appointed 
head.  The  work  is  so  appropriate  to  an  evil  angel,  as  well  as  the 
place  from  which  the  army  comes,  that  a  nvevfxa  dxd&aQzov  seems 
most  probably  to  be  here  designated  as  the  leader,  rather  than  any  one 
of  the  good  angels. 

(12)  The  first  woe  is  past;  behold  !  there  come  j'et  two  woes  hereafter. 

Lit.  the  one  woe,  etc. ;  but  our  idiom  does  not  well  admit  such  a  ver- 
sion here.  As  to  the  speaker  in  this  verse,  the  words  are  those  of  the 
seer,  and  not  of  the  angel,  and  are  designed  to  give  distinct  notice  of 
the  progress  of  the  catastrophe  towards  completion.  Ovai  an  inde- 
clinable interjection,  here  employed  as  a  noun  sing,  feminine,  as  the 
article  shows. — "Eg^ovrai,  are  coining,  and  so  (often)  the  Pres.  is  used 
in  a  Fut.  sense;  see  Gramm.  §  136.  1.  c. 


SECOND  woe-trumpet:  Chap.  IX.  13 — XL  19.  195 


SECOND  WOE-TRUMPET:    CHAP.  IX.  13— XI.  19. 

[The  sixth  trumpet,  or  second  icoe-trumpet,  is  introductory  of  several  important 
occurrences.  That  wliich  immediately  concerns  tiie  progress  of  the  catastrophe 
is  first  related.  Tliis  is,  the  irruption  of  an  overwhelming  army  of  horsemen,  un- 
der the  guidance  of  evil  demons,  whose  appropriate  work  is  destruction.  Not 
only  are  the  riders  engaged  in  the  work  of  destroying,  but  the  horses  themselves 
are  of  such  an  extraordinary  nature,  that  they  breathe  out  slaughter  on  every 
side.  Fire  and  brimstone  and  smoke  issue  from  their  mouth  ;  and  like  the  lo- 
custs, they  are  formed  with  tails  which  annoy  with  deadly  violence. 

This  is  the  most  remote  of  all  the  symbols  which  the  author  has  employed,  from 
the  real  objects  of  the  natural  world.  Indeed,  the  taste  of  the  occidental  world 
can  with  difficulty  accommodate  itself  to  the  relish  of  such  imagery ;  so  distant  is 
it  from  the  bounds  of  natural  probability.  Yet  we  know  well  that  the  oricntnl 
world  deliffhts  in  imagery  of  this  nature  ;  as  the  fictions  of  Persia,  Arabia,  and 
Hindustan,  respecting  good  and  evil  Genii,  abundantly  testify.  In  making  up 
our  aesthetical  judgment,  then,  respecting  such  a  scene  as  that  now  before  us, 
we  must  transport  ourselves  into  tlie  eastern  world,  and  judge  from  the  feelings, 
views,  and  taste  there  predominant.  There  is  not  elsewhere,  in  all  the  Scrip- 
tures, anything  in  the  way  of  symbol  which  borders  so  near  upon  what  we  usually 
deem  excessive  and  unnatural,  (except  perhaps  a  part  of  Ezek.  i.),  as  the  army  of 
horsemen  from  the  Euphrates.  Even  the  number  savours  of  hyperbole;  for  it  is 
no  less  than  '2UU,0()(),000.  Such  a  state  of  the  case,  then,  puts  it  out  of  all  ques- 
tion whether  we  arc  to  find  here  the  mere  prototypes  of  what  is  to  be  literally 
verified,  or  actually  to  take  place  as  a  matter  of  fact.  A  simple  statement  of  what 
is  actuall}'  said  bv  the  author,  renders  all  argument  unnecessary  to  show,  that  we 
can  rationally  suppose  nothing  more  than  mere  symbol  of  overw-holming  force  to 
be  presented  here. 

'  But  why  is  this  army  brought  from  the  region  of  the  Euphrates?  It  was  the 
Roman  power,  which  was  to  lay  waste  the  land  of  Judea,  and  which  indeed  was 
already  attacking  it  when  the  Apocalypse  was  written.  Why  then  does  not  the 
writer  bring  his  army  of  horsemen  from  the  West,  and  not  from  the  East .'' 

For  two  reasons,  1  would  reply,  he  omits  doing  this  ;  at  least,  so  the  case  pre- 
sents itself  to  my  mind.  (1)  The  principal  enemies  and  oppressors  of  the  Jews, 
from  time  immemorial,  had  ever  been  from  the  east.  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  Sy- 
ria, had  all  overrun  and  laid  waste  Judea,  and  carried  away  great  multitudes  of 
captives.  The  east,  moreover,  abounded  \n  cavalry;  and  this  kind  of  troops  were 
always  the  most  harassing  and  destructive  in  overrunning  a  country.  For  this 
reason  we  may  suppose  the  author  to  lay  the  scene  of  assembling  his  army  of 
horsemen  in  the  east.  (2)  It  was  to  be  calculated  upon,  and  was  matter  of  actual 
occurrence,  that  when  Judea  was  attacked  by  the  Romans,  the  latter  would  draw 
their  supplies  of  troops  from  the  neighbouring  oriental  countries  under  their  sway. 
Thus  Titus,  when  left  by  Vespasian  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Judea,  drew 
troops  from  Syria  and  from  the  Euphrates;  Jos.  Bell.  Jud.  V.  1.  5,  6.  It  will  be 
remembered,  that  at  this  time  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  extended  to  the  Eu- 
phrates. 

Ewald  supposes  the  Parthians  to  be  meant  by  the  horsemen,  in  this  case  ;  and 
that  the  object  attacked  waa  the  heathen  of  Rome  and  elsewhere.     But  this  con- 


196  SECOND  WOE-TRUMPET :   Chap.  IX.  13 — XL  19. 

founds  the  first  catastrophe  with  the  second ;  and  it  would  represent  the  writer  as 
stopping  short,  when  on  the  very  finale  of  his  first  catastrophe,  and  changing  en- 
tirely the  whole  scene  of  action,  without  giving  any  notice  to  the  reader.  There 
is  something  so  improbable  in  all  this,  that  it  needs  very  cogent  reasons  to  render 
it  credible.  There  is,  indeed,  one  circumstance  here,  which  seems  to  plead  for 
such  a  construction.  This  is  the  continued  idolatry  of  those  who  survive  the  at- 
tack of  the  horsemen  ;  which  seems  to  be  exhibited  in  v.  20.  But  as  a  literal  sense 
of  tiiis  passage  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary  ;  and  since  the  admission  of  Gen- 
tiles as  the  victims  of  the  invading  army,  would  make  such  entire  confusion  in 
the  author's  plan,  I  cannot  persuade  myself  that  Ewald  has  given  a  correct  view 
of  the  general  design  of  the  passage.  Something  more  will  be  said  in  relation  to 
this  subject,  in  the  commentary  which  follows. 

The  account  of  the  horsemen  being  concluded,  the  writer  next  introduces  two 
episodes,  before  he  advances  to  the  consummation  of  the  catastrophe.  The  first 
is  in  chap,  x,  where  an  angel  appears,  and  makes  proclamation  in  the  most  solemn 
manner  of  the  speedily  approaching  consummation.  The  great  importance  of  the 
event  about  to  take  place,  seems  to  be  tlie  occasion  of  such  an  interposition  on 
the  part  of  the  angel.  At  the  same  time,  another  purpose  is  answered  by  it, 
John  was  now  brought  near  the  end  of  his  vision,  in  respect  to  the  book  of  seven 
seals.  These  seals  had  not  only  been  all  broken,  but  the  seven  parts  or  succes- 
sive series,  into  which  the  last  seal  is  divided,  are  now  completed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  only  the  final  one.  The  first  vision  or  catastrophe,  therefore,  must  of 
course  be  very  near  its  close.  But  still,  the  work  of  the  seer  is  not  completed. 
Other  visions  besides  this  are  to  be  presented  ;  other  disclosures  are  to  be  made. 
As  he  has  seen  depicted,  in  lively  representations,  the  impending  fate  of  persecu- 
ting Judea,  so  he  must  also  see  that  of  the  per.secuting  heathen  nations.  Accord- 
ingly the  angel  who  proclaims  the  completion  of  the  first  catastrophe,  gives  to 
John  a  book  in  which  is  inscribed  the  destinies  of  the  heathen,  or  the  progress 
and  consummation  of  the  second  catastrophe.  With  this  book  he  receives  the  in- 
telligence also,  that  lie  must  prophesy  still  farther  "  respecting  people  and  nations 
and  tongues  and  many  kings,"  10:  11.  This  corresponds  so  well  with  chap,  xii — 
xix,  that  1  do  not  see  any  good  reason  to  doubt,  that  the  words  just  repeated  have 
respect  to  the  contents  of  those  chapters. 

The  seer  having  been  thus  prepared  still  to  continue  his  work  after  the  first 
part  of  his  prophetic  task  shall  have  been  finished,  nothing  would  seem  to  be 
wanting  now,  but  the  finishing  or  catastrophe  itself.  Yet,  how  can  the  once  be- 
loved people  of  God  be  destroyed  !  How  can  God's  dwelling-place  at  Jerusalem 
be  laid  waste,  and  made  the  reproach  of  a  scoffing  world  !  As  in  chap.  vii.  we 
have  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  Christians  themselves  are  secured  from 
impending  ruin,  so  here  the  security  is  extended  to  all  that  is  truly  spiritual  and 
valuable  in  the  ancient  worship.  The  externals  of  the  temple  are  to  be  cast  down 
to  the  ground  and  trodden  under  foot  by  the  heathen  ;  but  the  holy  place,  and  the 
true  spiritual  worshippers  therein,  are  to  be  preserved.    Chap.  11:  1,  2. 

And  now  what  remains  but  the  last  trumpet .-'  But  still,  before  it  sounds,  new- 
ly committed  and  more  aggravated  crimes  are  brought  to  view,  in  order  that  all 
may  see  the  long-suffering  of  God  and  the  perfect  justice  of  his  proceedings. 
Christian  witnesses,  clothed  with  miraculous  power,  appear  in  the  devoted  city 
There  they  exercise  their  office,  for  a  short  time.  There  they  are  finally  slain,  and 
exposed  to  open  and  repeated  insult.  Theii  death,  however,  only  gives  ultimate 
triumph  to  their  cause.  This  is  represented  by  the  symbol  of  the  two  witnesses 
rising  from  the  dead  and  ascending  to  heaven.     A  great  earthquake  succeeds  this 


SECOND  woe-trumpet:  Chap.  IX.  13, 14.  197 

event,  by  which  a  tenth  part  of  tlie  city  is  destroyed.  The  enemies  of  the  church 
are  constrained  by  terror  to  confess  the  hand  of  God  in  tliese  events,  But  the 
earthquake  appears  to  be  principally  an  appropriate  signal  of  what  is  to  follow, 
under  the  sounding  of  the  seventh  and  last  trumpet. 

Such  are  the  contents  of  the  second  woe-trumpet.  The  delay,  which  was  ad- 
verted to  in  chap,  (i:  IJ,  we  have  found,  on  various  occasions,  to  be  provided  for 
by  the  writer.  This  last  delay  seems,  indeed,  to  be  the  longest  of  all.  It  is  natu- 
ral that  it  should  be  so.  The  Jituil  stroke  is  one  that  requires  in  all  respects  en- 
tire and  anjple  preparation.  The  offers  of  pardon,  made  during  the  ministry  of 
the  two  witnesses,  is  to  be  brought  into  this  account;  for  it  is  thus  that  the  mind 
is  favourably  impressed  with  the  long  sulfering  of  God.  It  is  thus  too,  when  jus- 
tice at  last  arrives,  that  we  are  prepared  to  be  fully  satisfied  with  its  demands  and 
its  penalties.] 

(13,  14)  And  the  sixth  angel  sounded,  and  I  heard  a  voice  from  the  four  horns 
of  the  golden  altar,  which  is  before  God,  saying  to  the  sixth  angel  who  had  the 
trumpet:  Loose  the  four  angels  who  are  bound  by  the  great  river  Euphrates. 

Mi'av  here  =  t4'>  or  equivalent  to  our  English  indefinite  article  a  or 
an  ;  see  on  e'tg  under  5:  5. 

'Ex  z<av  teoadfiwv  xeQUTOiv,  where  ix  must  be  equivalent  to  dno  ;  for 
the  Hebrew  '("a  corresponds  to  both.  The  writer  does  not  mean  to  say, 
that  the  voice  went  forth  out  of  the  horns  of  the  altar,  i,  e.  that  the  horns 
themselves  spake,  but  that  the  voice  came  from  the  direction  of  the 
altar  to  him ;  or  (if  we  must  insist  on  in)  from  the  midst  of  the  horns, 
which  of  course  would  be  in  the  midst  of  the  altar.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever, if  we  only  suppose  the  throne  of  God  to  stand  behind  the  altar, 
(as  in  the  temple),  then  the  voice,  being  spoken  from  the  throne,  would 
come  to  John  as  if  it  were  from  the  altar.  I  see  no  objection  how- 
ever to  supposing,  that  the  angel  of  the  altar  here  speaks,  as  the  herald 
of  the  throne. — KeQuraiv  (see  Ex.  27:  2.  Amos  3:  14)  means  the  prom- 
inences, in  the  way  of  ornament,  placed  upon  the  four  corners  of  the 
altar;  and  which,"  IVraTmdhTdes  says,  were  of  the  form  of  turrets  or 
pyramids,  as  they  were  constructed  in  the  Jewish  temple.  Hence  the 
name  horns ;  comp.  Is.  5:  1. 

To)  r/.rfo  dyytho,  i.  e.  the  sixth  angel,  who  sounded  the  trumpet,  is 
himself  commissioned  to  execute  the  threatening  which  it  indicated. 
'O  e/ojv,  see  on  o  fiUQTvg  under  1:  5,  as  Nom.  case. — Avaov  zovg  .  .  . 
EvcfQur-Q.  That  these  are  evil  angels  or  demons,  seems  probable  from 
the  circumstances.  The  air,  the  abyss,  and  the  desert,  are  the  localities 
of  evil  spirits,  i.  e.  they  were  popularly  and  familiarly  spoken  of  in  this 
manner  among  the  Jews ;  see  Exc.  I.  Evil  Spirits,  No.  5.  *  That  the 
desert  is  one  of  the  places  thus  a.ssigned,  is  plain  from  Is.  13:  21.  34: 
14.  Rev.  18:  2.  Tobit  8:  3.  Baruch  4:  35.  Enoch  10:  6,  7,  and  very 
plainly  from  Matt.  12:  43  ;  see  Exc.  ut  supra,  No.  5.  b.  That  four 
angels  are  here  mentioned,  must  be  referred  to  the  same  reason  as  that 
which  led  to  indicate /owr  angels  as  holding  in  the  winds,  Rev.  7: 1,  viz., 


198  SECOND  WOE-TRUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  15. 

it  is  because  the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  the  four  winds,  etc.,  are 
usually  spoken  of  as  comprehending  every  quarter.  So  here,  the  army 
to  be  raised  is  conceived  of  as  consisting  of  four  parts,  and  these  will 
have  four  commanders  (so  to  speak)  coming  from  every  quarter  of  the 
desert  region  whence  the  troops  are  to  proceed. — As  to  deSsiisvovg,  this 
is  a  familiar  idea  in  the  Scriptures,  in  respect  to  evil  angels  who  are  in 
a  state  of  special  durance  or  restraint  ;  comp.  2  Pet.  2:  4.  Jude  v.  6. 
Rev.  20:  2 — 7.  In  the  book  of  Enoch  this  is  very  common ;  e.  g. 
Enoch  10:  15—17.  14:  4.  18:  16.  21:  1—6.  53:  1—6.  54:  6—8.  68: 
39.  87:  3 — 5.  Comp.  4  Ezra,  in  Fabricius,  Cod.  Apoc.  V.  Test.  11. 
pp.  237 — 240.  Undoubtedly  the  word  hound,  used  in  respect  to  spirits, 
is  to  be  tropically  understood.  It  means,  of  course,  under  restraint ; 
for  when  evil  spirits  are  sent  to  the  desert,  or  to  the  abyss,  they  are  sub- 
jected in  this  way  to  special  restraint ;  at  least  the  object  of  the  phrase- 
ology is  to  designate  such  an  idea. — T^  TtotdiJ-cp  rep  ^sydlci)  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  usual  expression  in  Hebrew  ^Tian  ^nsn ,  which  sometimes  is 
accompanied  with  n'la ,  the  Euphrates,  as  here. 

But  why  the  region  of  the  Euphrates  ?  In  addition  to  what  has 
been  already  said  above,  it  may  be  here  remarked,  that  in  Is.  21:  1,  the 
prophet  speaks  of  the  burden,  i.  e.  commination  or  sentence,  of  the  des- 
ert of  the  sea,  i.  e.  of  the  Babylonish  region,  sea  being  used  for  the 
Euphrates,  as  it  is  often  elsewhere  for  any  large  river.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  westward  of  it,  are  vast  deserts  of  sand,  and 
(near  the  river)  of  morasses.  From  this  oriental  region  then,  fraught 
in  ancient  times  with  plagues  to  Judea,  is  to  come  this  new  and  unheard 
of  host,  who  are  to  trample  down  and  destroy.  Horsemen  are  the  ap- 
propriate and  most  destructive  troops  of  the  East. 

(15)  And  the  four  angels  were  loosed,  who  are  prepared  for  the  hour  and  day 
and  month  and  year,  that  they  may  slay  a  third  part  of  men. 

The  writer  does  not  say :  ^roi^aa^u'roi  iv  wga  x.  r.  X.  but  dg  tijv 
aqav,  etc.,  i.  e.  for  the  particular  year,  month,  day,  and  hour,  destined 
by  God  for  the  great  catastrophe  which  is  to  follow.  The  first  mode  of 
expression  would  indicate,  that  they  were  prepared  for  any  hour,  day, 
etc. ;  but  the  latter,  i.  e.  the  one  in  our  text,  can  bear  only  the  sense 
which  I  have  given  it.  It  matters  not  whether  the  meaning  of  any 
hour,  day,  etc.  be  in  itself  a  truth,  (as  it  doubtless  is)  ;  it  is  enough  to 
say,  that  Ijiis  is  not  what  the  writer  here  meant  to  affirm ;  at  any  rate, 
it  is  not  what  he  has  said.  The  phraseology  would  seem  also  to  inti- 
mate, that  the  executioners  of  divine  justice  in  this  case,  (for  evil  spirits 
are  compelled  to  perform  such  a  task,  comp.  1  Cor.  5:  5.  1  Tim.  1:  20), 
were  confined  in  a  place  where  they  were  kept  ready  and  at  hand  (jitoi- 
liaofiivoi),  to  lead  on  the  army  of  invasion. 


♦   SECOND  woe-teumpet:  Chap.  IX.  IG,  17.  199 

(1{>)  And  ll>e  numbor  of  tlic  armies  of  liorscinen  was  two  myriads  of  myriads 
[20,000  X  10,000  —  '200,000,000]  ;  1  lieard  tlie  number  thereof 

2:7Qaz£VfiuTb}r  in  the  plural  because  of  the  immensity  of  the  multi- 
tuilo. — J/rrTiAov,  neut.  adj.  used  as  a  noun,  cavalrij  ;  although  it  is  re- 
miU'kable  that  the  writer  says  nothing  further  of  the  horsemen,  except- 
ing that  he  describes  a  part  of  their  armour,  v.  17.  The  number  of 
horsemen  mentioned  here  equals  one  fourth  part  at  least  of  the  human 
race  then  existing  in  the  whole  world,  and  probably  even  more  than 
this.  Of  course  all  literal  exposition  of  the  passage  is  out  of  question. 
I  heard  (he  number  thereof,  should  be  read  as  in  parentheses.  The 
meaning  seems  of  course  to  be,  that  he  was  told  what  the  number  was  ; 
roiint  them  he  could  not.  The  expression  before  us  gives  emphasis  to 
the  preceding  and  almost  incredible  declaration.  Some  angel-interpre- 
ter in  this  case,  we  must  suppose  to  have  told  him  the  number. 

(17)  And  thus  1  saw  the  liorses  in  v'ision,  and  those  who  sat  upon  them  liaving 
breast-plates  fiery  and  dark-red  and  j-ellow  ;  and  the  head.s  of  the  horses  were 
like  the  heads  of  lions,  and  from  tlieir  mouths  issued  fire  and  smoke  and  brim- 
stone. 

This  sentence  is  somewhat  difficult,  by  reason  of  the  ovrag.  On 
the  whole,  I  cannot  but  refer  it  to  what  precedes  ;  and  then  the  mean- 
ing of  course  is,  that  John  saw  the  army  to  be  such  an  immense  multi- 
tude, as  he  had  mentioned,  and  so  conditioned  also  as  to  their  leaders. 
Here  he  separates  the  horses  from  their  riders ;  and  when  he  names 
the  latter,  he  connects  with  the  designation  a  description  of  the  armour 
which  they  wore.  A  more  particular  description  of  the  horses  is  given 
in  a  separate  clause,  which  begins  grammatically  de  novo  as  to  its  con- 
struction, but  in  sense  is  connected  with  the  preceding  clause  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  verse. 

One  may,  however,  understand  ovzcog  here  as  designating  not  the 
manner  of  seeing,  but  the  manner,  i.  e.  the  appearance  or  form  of  the 
horses  and  of  their  riders.  Ovzcog  would  then  mean,  in  this  condition, 
in  such  a  state,  etc.,  viz.  in  the  one  that  is  described  in  the  succeeding  con- 
text ;  and  such  is  not  an  unusual  meaning  of  the  word  ovzcog,  comp. 
Matt.  1:  18.  2:  5.  John  21:  1.  Heb.  4:  4.  But  the  first  construction  is 
perhaps  more  simple. — 'Ev  ry  ondou  is  an  express  intimation,  amidst 
the  nan-ation  of  cfccivofisva  vtu  nut  TzaQccdo^a,  that  these  are  to  be  re- 
garded merely  as  objects  or  symbols  seen  in  an  ecstatic  state,  or  in  pro- 
phetic vision — not  as  realities  of  the  natural  world. 

Ih'Qivovg  means  o(  njiery  hue,  i.  e.  the  paler  and  more  glaring  red. — 
' Tuxip&ivovg  means  deep  dark  red,  verging  towarcf  black. — Qmodsig  (a 
form  of  the  later  Greek)  is  from  {^eiov,  sulphur,  and  would  seem  to  mean 
of  a  sulphureous  hue.  The  breast-plates,  then,  were  particoloured;  a 
circumstance  not  uixfrequent  among  more  uncultivated  nations  ;  who  of- 


200  SECOND  WOE-TRUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  18,  19.    " 

ten  adorn  their  persons,  as  well  as  their  armour,  in  a  similar  way.  The 
object  here  seems  to  be,  to  make  the  armour  more  glaring  and  terrific. 
'Sig  xeqjulal  Itovtwv,  evidently  because  they  are  intended  to  appear 
as  terrific  as  possible.  Under  the  preceding  trumpet,  we  find  a  new  and 
singulai-  office  assigned  to  the  locusts,  and  they  are  armed,  therefore, 
with  new  powers,  vs.  5,  10.  So  here  ;  the  horses  are  formed  so  as  to 
fill  all  with  consternation  who  behold  them. — Kai  ix  rcov  ozojidTcov .  .  . 
d^eiov.  The  heathen  poets  often  speak  of  horses  breathing  out^re  and 
smoke,  (Virg.  Georg.  11.  140.  III.  85.  Ovid.  Met.  VII.  104)  ;  but  here 
is  a  new  image  superadded,  viz.,  that  of  sulphureous  exhalation.  The 
idea  seems  to  be,  that  sulphur  burning  within  them  produces  material 
that  mixes  with  their  breath,  which  then,  in  the  form  of  smoke  or  va- 
pour, is  thrown  from  the  mouth,  and,  like  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  destroys 
life.  The  reader  will  not  object  to  this,  that  it  is  an  incongruity  in  na- 
ture ;  for  the  writer  himself  has  just  told  him,  that  all  is  nothing  more 
than  the  symbols  of  a  vision.  As  the  horses  themselves  are  nuQU  q)voiv, 
so  their  attributes  may  also  be  of  the  like  tenor,  and  they  are  here  repre- 
sented in  fact  as  being  TtUQa  cpvaiv. 

(18)  By  these  three  plagues  were  slain  a  third  part  of  men,  by  the  fire  and  the 
smoke  and  the  brimstone  which  issued  from  their  mouths. 

The  form  aneyauv&riaav  is  not  Attic,  but  of  the  later  Greek.  Its 
normal  theme  must  be  uruvco,  Lex.  xteivoo. 

Here  the  horses  themselves  are  represented  as  performing  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  work  of  destruction.  It  would  seem  as  if  the  riders  only 
guided  them,  and  were  armed  only  to  inspire  terror. — 'E:i  rov  nvQog  x. 
r.  1,  is  merely  specification,  in  order  to  make  the  preceding  clause  quite 
plain. — Tov  ixnoQevofis'vov  agrees  with  the  last  of  the  preceding  nouns 
in  form,  i.  e.  in  number  and  gender,  while  in  meaning  it  extends  to  all 
three  ;  a  construction  not  unfrequent  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew. 

(19)  For  the  power  of  the  horses  is  in  their  mouths,  and  also  in  their  tails;  for 
their  tails  are  like  to  serpents,  having  heads,  and  with  them  they  do  harm. 

'//  yiiQ  i^ovoia  a.  z.  h  repeats  again,  in  still  another  form,  the  idea 
that  these  extraordinary  horses,  unlike  to  all  others,  inflicted  deadly 
wounds  by  their  mouths.  The  idea  is  presented  here  in  the  shape  of 
cause  or  grotmd  of  what  precedes.  But  here  another  trait  also,  which 
is  new  and  still  more  strange,  is  added.  Not  only  do  they  breathe  out 
igneous  sulphur,  but  they  have,  like  the  amphisbaena  or  two-headed 
serpent,  a  head  on  either  extremity ;  and  with  both  of  the  heads  do  they 
inflict  injury.  It  is  said  of  the  amphisbaena,  that  its  tail  resembles  a 
head,  and  with  this  it  throws  out  poison  ;  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  VIII.  35.  Lu- 
can.  IX.  179.  Hesych.  sub.  verbo.     See  the  citations  in  Wetstein. 

"Exovaai  y.e(faXdg  must  relate,  as  the  gender  now  is,  to  the  preceding 


SECOND  WOE-TRUMPET :    CuAP.  IX.  20.  201 

ovQni\  and  not  to  oq^faiv  which  is  masculine.  The  meaning  is,  that  the 
ovnnt  assumed  the  form  of  lieads,  as  is  the  case  in  respect  to  the  ain])hia- 
baena ;  and  AS'ith  these  heads  they  a.ssauUed  the  enemy,  or  those  attack- 
ed by  them ;  whether  with  poisonous  breath,  or  by  the  biting  of  the 
teeth,  is  not  said.  Monstra  horrenda  we  may  well  name  them  ;  and 
these  «are  just  what  the  writer  meant  to  exhibit.  The  punishment  to 
be  intlicted  was  dreadfid,  beci\usc  guilt  was  greatly  aggravated.  Of 
course  the  instruments  of  punishment,  we  may  well  suppose,  must  be  of 
an  extraordinary  nature.  The  Turcomans  and  other  Orientals  train 
their  horses  to  assault  with  the  hinder  part,  as  well  as  with  the  front, 
see  Vol.  I.  §  10.  p.  183. 

(20)  And  the  rest  ot  men,  who  were  not  slain  by  these  plagues,  repented  not 
of  the  works  of  their  hands,  that  they  might  not  worship  demons,  and  idols  of 
gold,  and  silver,  and  brass,  and  stone,  and  wood,  which  can  neither  see,  nor  hear, 
nor  walk. 

Ewald  considers  this  as  decisive  in  respect  to  those  who  are  the  objects 
of  attack  by  the  horsemen.  He  says  '  that  they  can  be  no  other  than 
heathen,  the  actual  worshippers  of  false  gods  and  of  idols.'  And  if  it  be 
absolutely  necessary  to  interpret  this  in  a  literal  way,  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  his  position  is  unavoidable.  But  in  every  case  of  this  nature, 
it  is  certainly  proper  to  take  into  view  the  context,  and  the  evident  gen- 
eral object  of  the  writer.  In  chap.  vii.  we  find  that  those  who  are  to  be 
exempted  from  destruction  are  all  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  Then 
again  in  chap.  xi.  we  find  that  the  temple,  as  to  its  exterior,  is  to  be 
trodden  under  foot  by  the  Gentiles.  Moreover  the  two  witnesses,  who 
appear  near  the  close  of  the  catastrophe,  perform  their  oifice  in  the  great 
city  where  our  Lord  was  crucified.  Then  "  a  tenth  part  of  this  city 
falls  by  an  earthquake."  Nor  is  there  anything,  save  the  verse  before 
us,  in  chap,  vi — xi,  which  indicates  that  the  heathen  are  here  designated 
as  the  objects  of  punishment.  It  is  the  second  catastrophe,  (chap,  xii — 
xix.),  which  presents  them  as  the  subjects  of  divine  displeasure. 

Unless  then  we  mingle  all  things  in  confusion,  as  it  respects  the  plan 
of  the  writer,  we  cannot  admit  that  the  heathen,  as  such,  are  here  pre- 
sented to  our  view.  It  is  sufficiently  known  to  the  critical  reader,  that 
■•a ,  and  o^ia ,  commonly  employed  in  the  O.  Testament  to  designate 
the  heathen,  are  also  often  employed  to  designate  such  Jeivs  as  acted  in 
a  heathenish  manner;  e.  g.  in  Is.  1:  4.  9:  2.  26:  2.  49:  7.  Gen.  35:  11. 
12:  2.  P.S.  33:  12.  Nor  are  sve  destitute  of  like  usage  in  other  cases  of 
a  similar  nature,  even  in  prosaic  moral  exhortation  ;  e.  g.  Col.  3:  5, 
"  covetousness  which  is  idolatry  ;"  Eph.  5:  5,  "  covetous  man,  who  is 
an  idolater;"  1  Sam.  15:  23,  "  Stubbornness  is  as  iniquity  and  idolatry 
.  .  .  rebellion  is  as  the  sin  of  witchcraft."  In  Zech.  13:  2  is  a  prediction, 
that  in  the  Messianic  day  "  the  names  of  idols  shall  be  cut  off'  from  the 

VOL.  II.  26 


202  SECOND  WOE-TRUMPET  :    ChAP.  IX.  20. 

land,  and  no  more  remembered  ;  dnd  the  prophets  and  the  unclean  spirits 
shall  pass  out  of  the  land."  In  the  Test,  of  the  twelve  Patriarchs, 
(Judae,  c.  23)  we  find  the  following  declaration :  "Much  sadness  do  I  have, 
my  son,  because  of  the  wantonness  and  jugglery,  and  idolatry  which  ye 
do  toward  the  palace  [temple  ?  Greek  dg  to  ^aailnov'],  following  ven- 
triloquists, and  auguries  of  demoniacal  deceit.  Your  daughters  ye  make 
public  singers,  and  you  mingle  in  the  abominations  of  the  Gentiles,  etc." 
Now  if  this  prediction  came  from  a  Jew  of  Palestine,  which  seems  quite 
probable,  and  if  it  be  contempoi'ary,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  Apocalypse, 
(of  which  there  is  no  good  reason  to  doubt),  does  not  this  afford  proof,  that 
there  did  exist  heathen  practices,  and  a  heathen  party,  among  the  Jews 
of  that  period  ?  In  tlie  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  it  is  well  known, 
there  was  a  considerable  party  of  this  character  ;  and  under  Herod,  the- 
atres, and  public  games,  and  other  heathen  customs,  had  become  very 
frequent  in  Judea.  The  Sicarii  of  Galilee  and  the  Zealots  of  Jerusalem 
were  surely  men  of  as  base  and  desperate  a  character  as  could  be  found 
in  the  world  ;  and  amid  the  confluence  of  Idumeans  and  desperadoes,  at 
that  time,  were  there  not  many,  professedly  Jews  indeed,  who  were  hea- 
then in  their  practices  ? 

But  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  enough,  in  order  to  defend  the  meaning 
which  I  would  assign  to  pur  text,  to  show  that  language  of  the  like  na- 
ture is  elsewhere  employed,  when  literal  idolatry  is  not  meant.  Under 
the  ancient  dispensation,  the  crying  sin  of  the  Jews,  and  the  one  against 
which  more  comminations  are  uttered  than  against  any  other  offence, 
was  that  of  idolatry.  To  say  then  of  those  who  survived  the  attacks 
of  the  horsemen,  that  they  did  not  repent,  but  were  still  idolaters,  would 
be  kindred  to  what  Isaiah  (1:  10)  says,  when  he  calls  the  rulers  of  the 
Jews  Sodomites,  and  addresses  the  nation  with  the  opprobrious  epithet, 
people  of  Gomorrah.  It  will  not  be  contended,  that  the  prophet  here 
means  to  tax  them  specifically  with  the  crime  of  sodomy  ;  he  designs  to 
say  merely,  that  they  were  excessively  wicked.  So  in  the  case  before 
us  ;  the  remnant  (of  loinoi)  wei'e  of  a  character  like  that  of  the  ancient 
idolaters.  More  than  this  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  exegesis ;  more  than  this  the  context  does  not  allow  us  to 
assume,  unless  indeed  we  have  reason  to  suppose  it  to  be  a  matter  of 
fact,  that  among  the  exceedingly  wicked  Jews  of  that  period,  there  were 
many  who  actually  fell  into  the  practices  of  the  heathen,  and  engaged 
in  idol-worship.  But  as  this  is  a  somewhat  doubtful  matter,  I  should 
content  myself  with  the  other  interpretation. 

Ol  loinoi  means  those  left  after  one  third  part  had  been  destroyed  by 
the  horsemen. — Ov  fiEreroijauv  ix  a.  r.  X.  so  with  iy.  after  this  verb,  in 
Rev.  9:  21  (see  Comm.)  16:  11.  In  Acts  8:  22  with  utto  following  the 
verb.     Elsewhere  the  verb  is  used  in  the  absolute  way.     Do  not  the 


THE  OPEN  BOOK :  Chap.  X.  203 

phrases  before  us  come  from  the  Ilohrew  '"3  ^2r  sib? — "I'nyojv  zcor  yei- 
Qcof  ai'TMt',  i.  e.  works  wliich  they  had  done,  another  Iliibrew  idiom, 
/land  being  the  symbol  of  accomi)lishment. — Jaifwna  was  the  name 
given  by  the  Jews,  in  the  way  of  contempt,  to  the  heathen  gods  ;  comp. 
1  Cor.  10:  20,  21. —  Xiwau  /..  x.  I.  specifies  the  various  materials  out  of 
which  ditierent  idols,  I'or  various  purposes,  were  made. — ■'!//  o'via  '^Anuv 
.  .  .  TTtntnuTth',  specifications  of  their  qualities  designed  to  render  i)romi- 
nent  the  contempt  in  which  the  idols  ought  to  be  held ;  specifications, 
moreover,  drawn  from  the  O.  Testament,  comp.  Ps.  115:  4 — 7.  135: 
15 — 18.  Jer.  10:  3 — 5.  Is.  44:  9 — 20.  But  the  particular  passage,  of 
which  the  latter  pact  of  v.  20  is  only  a  citation,  may  be  found  in  Dan. 
5:23. 

('21)  And  they  repented  not  of  their  murders,  nor  of  their  sorceries,  nor  of  their 
fornication,  nor  of  their  thefts. 

It  will  not  be  contended  that  all  these  crimes  were  not  rife  in  Judea, 
at  the  time  when  the  Apocalypse  was  written,  i.  e.  during  the  invsision 
of  Palestine.  Above  all,  (^ovoi  and  xltfiftazu  filled  the  whole  country. 
That  the  qsuQuaxeiai  were  frequent,  and  an  object  of  great  abomination 
to  the  pious,  is  plain  from  Rev.  18:  23.  21:  8.  22:  15.  See  also  in  the 
O.  Testament,  Ex.  22:  18.  Lev.  19:  26.  Mic.  5:  12.  Is.  2:  6.  If  the 
reader  Avishes  to  trace  more  distinctly  the  history  of  these  times,  in  re- 
spect to  the  vices  that  were  common,  he  may  consult  Josephus,  Bell. 
Jud.  IV.  9,  10.  V.  9,  4.  VI.  2,  1  and  2.~yir3,  3.  Comp.  Tac.  V.  12. 
There  is  something  peculiar  in  the  repetition  of  ov  [itrnvotjauv  in  v. 
20,  and  again  in  v.  21.  Is  it  the  design  of  the  writer,  that  v.  21  should 
be  regarded  as  an  epexegesis  of  v.  20  ?  It  has  somewhat  of  this  as- 
pect ;  but  the  case  i3  not  sufficiently  plain  to  justify  us  in  positively  as- 
suming this  ground.  That  the  Jews  of  the  period  immediately  preced- 
ing the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  were  wicked  and  impious  almost  be- 
yond example — and  that  such  wickedness  and  impiety  are  characterized 
by  V.  20th,  seems  to  be  a  sufficient  solution  of  the  language  employed, 
without  resorting  to  the  supposition  of  Ewald.     '^j  ^j  ,  "^  o,  ,  (  K  A 


THE  OPEN  BOOK:    CHAP.  X. 

That  the  seer  now  occupies  a  new  station,  (hitherto  he  had  been  in  heaven), 
Bcems  manifest  from  vs.  1,  10.  After  the  angel  has  descended  he  speaks  with 
John,  V.  9,  and  John  Ukes  the  little  book  from  his  hand,  and  is  again  addressed 
by  the  angel.  Now  inasmuch  as  the  angel  was  standing  upon  the  margin  of  the 
sea  and  the  land  (v.  2),  the  necessary  implication  is,  that  John  was  standing  near 
him.  Consequently  there  must  have  been  a  change  of  position  on  the  part  of 
John,  previous  to  this  colloquy  between  the  angel  and  him. 

Such  is  the  case,  moreover,  in  other  parts  of  this  book.     In  one  case  indeed, 


204  THE  OPEN  BOOK :  Chap.  X.  1. 

12:  18,  we  have  an  express  indication  of  a  change  of  station;  and  so  again  in  17; 
3.  But  in  general  the  reader  is  left  to  draw  his  own  conclusion,  with  regard  to 
this,  from  the  nature  of  the  vision  and  the  circumstances  with  which  it  is  attend- 
ed. Whether  the  scenes  described  in  the  first  part  of  chap.  xi.  imply  a  new  vi-" 
sion,  different  from  the  present  one,  will  be  discussed  when  we  come  to  the  in- 
terpretation of  that  chapter. 

The  impression  made  on  my  own  mind  by  chap.  x.  is,  that  the  design  of  it  is 
to  show  in  an  impressive  manner  that  the  vision  respecting  tlie  book  with  seven 
seals  (chap,  v.)  is  now  just  at  its  close,  that  nothing  more  remains  but  the  sound- 
ing of  the  seventh  and  last  trumpet,  and  that  this  shall  speedily  take  place,  on- 
XiTi  x&o'i'os  i'orat,  v.  6.  With  this  seems  also  to  be  joined  another  object,  viz.  to 
introduce  this  final  catastrophe  with  all  the  solemnity  and  demonstration  of  its 
importance,  which  the  nature  of  the  case  seemed  to  require.  The  destruction  of 
the  temple  and  city  of  God,  and  also  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  nation,  were 
events  such  as  cannot  often  happen,  and  when  they  do,  it  is  intended  that  they 
shall  make  a  deep  impression. 

The  new  commission  which  John  receives  (v.  11),  seems  to  be  a  circumstance 
which  obviously  contributes  to  show,  that  his  former  vision  of  the  sealed  book 
was  now  at  its  close  or  completed,  and  that  he  needed  new  directions  for  the  fur- 
ther discharge  of  prophetic  duty.  The  contents  of  the  book  are  not  sealed.  He 
devours  them,  i.  e.  he  reads  them  with  avidity,  in  order  that  he  may  know  what 
they  contained ;  and  then  he  is  told,  that  "he  must  prophesy  again  respecting 
many  nations  and  people  and  tongues  and  kings."  Thus,  when  the  last  or 
seventh  trumpet  shall  have  sounded,  his  task  will  still  proceed  ;  while  the  scene 
is  entirely  changed  in  respect  to  those  whose  destiny  is  predicted. 

(1)  And  I  saw  another  mighty  angel  descending  from  heaven,  clothed  with  a 
cloud,  and  a  rainbow  was  on  his  head,  and  his  visage  was  as  the  sun,  and  his  feet 
like  pillars  of  brass. 

JlXXov,  another,  i.  e.  different  from  the  angels  who  had  the  trumpets, 
and  which  the  writer  had  before  mentioned. — Ig^vqov,  "  epitheton  mere 
ornans,"  says  Eichhorn  again.  The  mere  I  would  strike  out.  That  it 
adds  to  the  splendour  of  the  scene,  and  makes  it  more  august  and  strik- 
ing, to  present  in  this  case  one  of  the  Qiniaa  (io^^vqoi)  of  the  heavenly 
host,  who  will  doubt  ?  And  principally  for  this  purpose  the  epithet 
seems  to  be  given. — FleQi^E^XrjiA.S'POP  verpeXtjv,  often  said  for  substance 
of  God  and  the  Saviour,  when  they  are  presented  in  the  attitude  of  mo- 
tion; see  Ps.  18: 11.  104:  3.  Is.  19:  1.  Ezek.  1:  4.  Matt.  24:  30.  Rev. 
1:  7.  So  here,  the  descent  of  the  angel  is  with  great  majesty ;  he  is 
borne  along  as  it  were  by  a  bright  cloud.  Ewald  represents  the  cloud  as 
designed  only  to  veil  his  splendour.  But  I  think  he  has  mistaken  the 
design  of  the  imagery;  comp.  Ps.  18:  11. 

'iQig  STzl  rijg  xscpaX^g  avrov,  comp.  Ezek.  1:  28.  Rev.  4:  3.  The 
splendour  and  beauty  of  his  crown  or  diadem  is  designated  by  this 
striking  image.  In  Rev.  12:  1,  the  woman  clothed  with  the  sun,  has  a 
diadem  of  twelve  stars.  The  different  colours  of  the  rainbow  here 
seem  to  be  indicative  of  the  different  coloured  gems  which  were  ap- 


THE  OPEN  BOOK :  Chai\  X.  2.  205 

parently  in  the  diadem  of  tho  angel. — nQoatanov  o)**  i\}.iog,  comp.  Rev. 
1:  16.  Jiulg.  5:  31.  Acts  2():  lo.  The  meaning  is,  that  his  visage  was 
exceedingly  glorious  or  resplendent. — lloSt^'  tog  ffzvXoi  ttvqO's',  i.  e.  shin- 
ing, glowing  with  brightness  ;  comp.  in  Ezek.  1:  4,  7,  27.  8:  2.  Rev. 
1:  15. 

(2)  And  he  hold  in  his  hand  a  litllo  book  opened  ;  and  he  placed  his  right  foot 
upon  the  sea,  but  his  left  upon  tiie  land. 

The  reader  will  note  the  difference  here  between  ^i^luQi'dinv,  a  di- 
minutive, and  ^i^Xinv  in  5:  1.  Not  that  anything  important  seems  to 
be  attached  to  the  different  sizes  of  the  books,  in  this  case,  but  the  dif- 
ferent appellations  seem  to  be  employed  principally  to  designate  a  dif- 
ference in  the  contents  of  the  respective  books.  Ewald  confidently 
asserts  that  this  little  book  was  no  other  than  a  repetition  in  brief  of 
what  was  in  the  sealed  book  of  chap.  v.  1  ;  Comm.  p.  189.  But  is  it 
not  unnatural  to  suppose,  that  after  the  contents  of  that  volume  had 
been  already  exposed,  even  to  the  very  last  page,  that  a  repetition  of  it 
should  now  be  here  made,  at  the  close  ?  This  would  seem  to  be  an 
incongruous  contrivance,  to  say  the  least.  And  why  is  the  devouring 
of  this  book,  i.  e.  the  thorough  and  eager  perusal  of  it,  accompanied 
with  a  command  to  prophesy  respecting  many  nations  and  kings  ?  v. 
11.  Surely  if  there  be  any  analogy  between  this  book  and  the  preced- 
ing one,  its  contents  must  have  respect  to  the  future,  not  to  the  past. 
That  this  future  begins  where  the  other  book  ends,  seems  altogether  a 
natural  and  obvious  supposition ;  for  why  should  the  past  be  again  re- 
peated ?* 

*  Eichhorn  represents  the  little  book  as  containing  only  what  the  angel  says  in 
vs.  6,  7  ;  which  he  supposes  to  be  read  by  the  angel  from  tlie  little  book;  Comm. 
in  loc.  Heinrichs  represents  the  little  book  either  as  being  the  same  as  the  ^i^Xiov 
in  5:  1,  or  else  a  summary  of  its  contents.  Vitringa  supposes  the  little  book  to 
contain  only  the  calamities  that  were  to  befal  the  cliurcli  under  the  si.xtli  trumpet. 
So,  for  substance,  does  Bengel  also  decide.  Mede,  on  the  contrary,  separates 
the  second  book  entirely  from  the  first;  and  with  good  reason,  as  it  seems  to 
me;  but  when  he  makes  out  from  it  a  syllabus  of  Roman  civil  and  political  his- 
tory, I  cannot  assent  to  this. 

In  the  midst  then  of  such  singular  diversity  of  opinion,  (which  in  itself  indi- 
cates the  dilhculty  of  the  passage),  how  is  an  inquirer  to  satisfy  his  own  mind.'' 
I  would  say  :  From  the  nature  of  the  case  presented,  and  from  anatogij.  Tiie 
nature  of  the  case  surely  indicates  new  matter  to  be  disclosed.  John  devours  the 
book,  (a  phrase  which  is  common  among  us  to  designate  reading  a  book  with 
great  avidity  and  interest),  and  the  contents  are  partly  sweet  and  partly  bitt<>r, 
i.  e.  what  it  contains  is  good  news  to  tlie  people  of  God,  and  denunciation  and 
commination  to  the  wicked.  Tlius  furnished  with  new  knowledge  he  is  bidden 
to  continue  his  prophetic  declarations,  which  are  no  longer  to  be  confined  to  the 
Jewish  people,  but  to  have  respect  to  vianij  nations  and  kings.  VVIiat  can  be 
made  out  from  all  thia,  but  a  further  commission  to  prophesy,  and  the  furnishing 


206  THE  OPEN  BOOK  :  Chap.  X.  2. 

His  right  foot  on  the  sea,  but  his  left  foot  on  the  land,  in  order  to  sym- 
bolize his  control  over  both.  He  is  about  to  declare  the  solemn  deter- 
mination of  God  to  execute,  even  to  consummation,  his  awful  judgments  ; 
and  a  symbolic  action  declarative  of  his  universal  control  and  power, 
is  altogether  appropriate.  The  passages  quoted  for  illustration  by 
Eichhorn  and  Heinrichs  here,  II.  IV.  443.  Eneid.  IV.  177.  Sap.  18: 
16.   Giddim  fol.  68.  2,  are  altogether  inapposite. 

of  John  with  the  means  of  so  doing?  And  then  as  to  analogy ;  if  this  book  be 
compared  with  that  in  5:  1,  we  must  suppose  the  object  is  of  a  similar  nature. 
How  can  we  believe,  1  ask  again,  that  it  is  a  mere  abridgment  of  what  has  been 
already  revealed  by  the  book  mentioned,  in  5:  1,  when  there  is  in  fact  no  repeti- 
tion in  the  Apocalypse  of  the  same  things?  Why  should  we  decide  against 
analog'y  and  probability,  in  order  to  make  out  so  incongruous  a  phenomenon? 
T  cannot  bring  myself  to  believe,  that  the  writer  had  a  plan  no  better  digested 
than  these  suppositions  would  indicate.  I  must  therefore  abide  by  the  views  al- 
ready disclosed,  until  1  can  see  some  better  reasons  brought  forward  in  support 
of  other  and  different  views. 

I  do  not  aver  that  there  are  no  difficulties  in  the  case.  '  Why  is  this  a  ^i^ka- 
ciSiov,  and  the  former  one  a  ^t^h'ov?  On  the  ground  which  1  have  taken,  are  the 
contents  of  the  second  book,  so  much  less  copious  than  those  of  the  first,  as  to 
require  such  a  distinction  in  names?'  Perhaps  one  might  say,  in  answer  to  these 
questions,  that  the  first  ^i^kiov  seems  to  be  a  book  of  pictures,  i.  e.  of  visible  sym- 
bolic representations,  and  therefore  a  larger  size  was  necessary.  The  second 
book  contains,  like  Ezekiel's  (2:  10),  matter  in  words,  which  needs  to  occupy  no 
great  space.  Or  one  might  say,  that  the  whole  is  merely  for  the  sake  of  variety, 
just  as  the  manner  of  the  visions  themselves  is  varied. 

There  is  still  another  difficulty.  '  Why  does  not  this  new  commission /o//ow 
the  seventh  trumpet,  instead  of  preceding  it?'  So  indeed  it  might,  if  the  exhibi- 
tion of  another  angel  and  a  new  occasion  of  his  appearing,  had  been  within  the 
plan  of  the  writer.  But  now,  the  same  angel  who  calls  heaven  to  witness  that 
time  shall  be  no  longer  in  respect  to  the  completion  of  the  first  great  catastrophe, 
is  also  charged  to  fiirnish  the  Apocalyptist  with  a  new  commission,  and  to  assure 
him  that  his  duties  will  not  terminate  with  the  full  disclosure  of  the  seven-sealed 
book. 

'  But  why  is  this  book  unsealed,  and  the  first  sealed.''  Is  not  the  disclosure,  in 
either  case,  such  as  can  proceed  only  from  him  who  reveals  secret  things  to  men  ?' 
It  is;  but  then  something  is  due  to  a  proper  regard  for  variety  of  representation. 
Nor  is  this  all.  That  book,  which  contains  the  destiny  of  God's  once  beloved 
people,  so  long  affianced  to  him,  may  well  be  introduced  with  greater  solemnity 
and  more  exhibition  of  mystery,  than  what  concerns  the  pagan  persecutors  of  the 
church,  whose  doom  would  be  less  a  matter  of  wonder  and  astonishment  to  any 
who  knew  their  character. 

These  remarks  may  perhaps  not  satisfy  the  reader.  But  I  must  ask  of  him,  be- 
fore he  decides  against  the  views  that  have  been  expressed,  to  investigate  the  other 
theories  that  have  been  mentioned,  and  see  whether  difficulties  greater  still  do 
not  encompass  them.  These  theories  appear  so  incongruous  to  my  own  mind, 
that  I  cannot  give  my  assent  to  them.  1  must  believe,  that  the  tcriter  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse has  a  continuovs  and  consistent  plan  throughout  his  work;  and  that  there  is 
a  harmony  among  all  its  parts  of  such  a  nature,  as  to  show  a  uniform  progress  in 
the  execution  of  his  design. 


THE  OPEN  BOOK  :  ChAP.  X.  3,  4.  207 

(3)  And  Im  rrird  willi  a  loud  voice,  as  a  lion  roaretli ;  and  wlipn  ho  cried,  tlic 
seven  tliun(iers  uttered  their  voices. 

\)te  txnaie — what  he  said,  is  not  here  related.  It  would  seem,  there- 
fore, to  have  been  a  loud  note  of  woe,  some  interjection  uttered  which 
would  serve  to  call  attention,  and  at  the  same  tiitie  be  indicative  of  the 
judgments  which  were  to  follow, — Mvy.uKa  is  frenerally  used  to  designate 
the  hnchig  of  the  ox  ;  i^nvyaax^ai,  for  the  roaring  of  the  lion.  Still,  in 
Theoc.  XXVI.  20  we  find  [n'y.tj[ta  Xsai'trji;  ;  so  that  John  does  not  vio- 
late even  classical  Greek  usage  in  this  case.  Perhaps  the  original  of 
this  image  is  to  be  found  in  Is.  21:  8,  n;;ix  x^p'';: . 

y^i  STtTa  [inovTui,  THE  seven  tltnnders,  not  simply  seven  thunders. 
This  is  to  be  regarded  in  a  light  similar  to  that  of  the  seven  angels, 
THE  seven  spirits,  and  many  other  sevens  in  the  Apocalypse.  Ewald 
supposes,  that  the  thunders  of  the  seven  heavens  are  meant  here.  Of 
the  fact  that  the  Jews  of  the  first  century  were  often  wont  to  reckon 
seven  heavens,  there  can  be  no  good  room  to  doubt ;  see  Ascens.  Is. 
chap.  vii.  viii,  where  this  is  fully  exhibited.  See  also  Fabr.  Cod. 
Pseud.  V.  Test.  Test.  Levi,  c.  2.  Tom.  I.  p.  544,  and  Eisenmcng. 
Entd.  Judenthum,  I.  p.  400.  But  no  trace  of  tliis  \z  to  be  found  in  the 
Apocalypse,  or  in  the  0.  or  N.  Testament.  This  exi)]aniition,  then, 
seems  to  be  improbable.  We  may  well  acquiesce,  therefore,  in  the 
easy  and  natural  exegesis,  which  makes  the  seven  thunders  to  mean  the 
very  loud  thunder  which  is  the  index  of  an  origin  from  heaven.  It 
utters  something  more  sublime  and  awful  than  conmion  thunder. 

(4)  And  when  the  seven  tliundcrs  uttered  [tlieir  voices],  I  was  about  to  write  ; 
but  I  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  saying:  Seal  up  tliat  which  the  seven  thunders 
have  uttered,  and  write  it  not. 

I  have  included  tug  qiavug  tuvrwv,  their  voices,  in  brackets,  because 
the  genuineness  of  these  words  is  doubtful.  The  sense  will  be  the  same 
witiiout  tliem  ;  although  the  tenor  of  the  style  in  the  Apocalypse  would 
seem  to  speak  in  their  favour. — "EnalXov  yQaqmiv  denotes  that  the  au- 
thor was  in  the  act  of  preparation  to  write  down  what  was  said  or  utter- 
ed ;  and  this  shows,  by  the  way,  that  the  supposition  made  by  most  of 
the  recent  critics,  viz.  that  the  apocalyptic  visions  were  rvritten  dotcn  at 
£phesus  a  consideraljle  time  after  the  visions  took  place,  has  no  good 
foundation.  The  intimation  here  plainly  is,  that  John  was  employed  in 
writing  during  the  intervals  of  his  visions. 

'hbn[r  i/.  rov  ovquvov,  i.  e.  it  was  not  the  command  of  the  angel 
who  had  appealed  in  the  vision,  but  proceeded  immediately  from  God 
himself. — 2^(pQuyiaov  a  i}.uh,aav  •/..  r.  X,  i.  e.  keep  secret,  close  up  Irom 
the  view  of  men,  wliat  the  thunders  have  uttered.  That  the  word  isjigti- 
ratively  employed  here  is  plain  ;  for  John  had  not  yet  written  down 


208  THE  OPEN  BOOK  :  Chap.  X.  4. 

what  was  uttered,  and  therefore  could  not  seal  up  any  instrument  or 
scroll  which  contained  the  words  now  spoken.  The  meaning  of  course 
must  be,  that  John  was  not  to  disclose  the  words  just  uttered,  but  to  keep 
them  secret,  as  a  writing  which  is  sealed  is  kept  secret.  Comp.  5:  1, 
which  presents  to  us  a  book  with  seven  seals,  and  of  course  these  seals 
prevented  any  one  fi'om  inspecting  its  contents  ;  also  Rev.  22:  10,  where 
John  is  directed  not  to  seal  up  the  Apocalypse,  because  its  fulfilment  was 
speedily  to  commence.  Dan.  8:  26.  9:  24.  12:  4,  quoted  by  Eichhorn 
and  Heinrichs,  are  inapposite  here,  for  they  have  a  different  sense.* 

*  But  what  was  it,  or  could  it  be,  which  the  seven  thunders  uttered  on  this  oc- 
casion ?  Vitringa  (p.  42D  seq;)  makes  a  singular  answer  to  this  question.  He 
says  that  the  seven  Crusades  are  meant  by  "  the  seven  thunders  ;  and  as  to  the 
command  to  pass  in  silence  what  was  uttered,  he  says  (of  the  crusades)  :  "  Nee 
dignae  erant  quae  prolixius  exponerentur."  1  mention  this  only  to  remind  the 
reader  what  extravagances  have  sometimes  been  manifested  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  Apocalypse,  even  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished  commentators  and  di- 
vines, when  they  go  into  minute  historical  applications. 

In  general  it  seems  to  be  agreed  among  recent  commentators,  that,  from  the 
nature  of  the  circumstances  and  the  nature  of  the  signal  itself,  we  must  draw  the 
conclusion,  that  what  was  declared  in  the  voice  of  thunder,  was  ominous  of  the 
catastrophe  near  at  hand.  This  is  altogether  appropriate.  On  an  errand  like  to 
that  of  making  such  a  declaration,  the  angel  himself  came  ;  as  is  clear  from  vs. 
6,7.  And  if  we  examine  11:  15 — 19  we  shall  see,  that,  with  the  exception  of 
the  triumphal  song  and  a  disclosure  of  a  few  symbols  of  destruction  (v.  19),  the 
writer  has  himself  passed  over  the  catastrophe  in  silence.  Has  this  no  designed 
connection  with  the  verse  before  us .'  Critics  in  general  do  not  seem  to  have 
looked  at  the  subject  in  this  point  of  view  ;  I  cannot  but  feel,  however,  that  what 
the  thunders  here  declared,  and  which  John  is  forbidden  to  speak  of,  is  there  sup- 
pressed. This  seems  better  to  solve  the  mystery  of  comparative  silence  in  chap. 
11:  15 — 19,  than  all  tlie  other  reasons  that  have,  with  so  much  discrepancy  and 
variety  of  opinion,  been  brought  forward. 

'  Bat  why  keep  silence  f  Entire  silence,  as  I  apprehend,  is  neither  commanded 
nor  observed  ;  for  what  does  the  angel  say  in  vs.  6,  7,  and  John  in  11:  15 — 19.' 
Yet  in  neither  case  is  there  any  circumstantial  and  direct  narration  of  the  final 
catastrophe.  If  any  one  feels  this  to  be  a  defect  in  the  plan  of  the  writer  ;  or  if 
he  concludes  from  this  (as  several  recent  critics  have  done)  that  the  writer  intends 
to  develope  no  catastrophe  here  ;  1  would  appeal  to  the  reason  and  nature  of  the 
case.  Suppose  a  father  called  upon  to  give  some  account  of  the  death  of  a  prod- 
igal child,  who  had  perished  amid  the  most  aggravated  crimes;  would  he  be  like- 
ly to  enter  into  a  circumstantial  detail  of  all  the  horrors  and  agonies  that  imme- 
diately preceded  and  accompanied  the  death  of  that  child  .'  Would  he — could  he 
— do  anything  more  than  distinctly  bring  to  view  the  closing  scene  in  general 
terms,  v^'hile  he  suppressed  the  particulars,  as  being  beyond  his  powers  of  descrip- 
tion, and  because  it  was  altogether  inappropriate  for  him  to  dwell  upon  them  .' 
Every  one  must  feel  the  force  of  such  an  appeal.  And  why  then  can  he  not 
allow  the  same  sympathy  to  have  its  place  in  the  breast  of  John,  or  even  a  higher 
and  more  sacred  one,  in  respect  to  the  beloved  people,  city,  and  temple  of  God  ? 
The  guilt  of  that  people  he  has  indeed  faithfully  and  fully  portrayed  ;  for  this 
was  a  duty  to  God  and  the  church.     Divine  justice  must  be  vindicated.     But  to 


THE  OPEN  BOOK :  Chap.  X.  5 — 7.  209 

(5,  6>  And  tlie  anijol  wIkuii  f  saw  standinsf  on  tlio  si'ii  nml  on  tho  land,  liflod 
up  his  riijlit  hand  to  heaven,  and  swarc  by  hiui  who  livcth  forevrr  and  over,  who 
croatod  the  licaven  and  the  tliin<rs  whioli  arc  in  it,  and  tho  eartli  and  tho  lhin<rs 
whicli  an*  in  it,  and  tlic  sea  and  llie  things  whicli  arc  in  it,  that  dolay  shiiU  he  no 
longer. 

Almost  the  exact  model  of  this  may  be  found  in  Dan.  12:  7;  with 
the  exception,  that  there  both  hands  arc  lifted  up,  here  ojdy  the  rujht 
hand,  llowevei-,  in  Gen.  14:  22.  Deut.  32:  40.  Ezek.  20:  f),  G,  men- 
tion is  made  of  only  one  hand,  which  almost  of  coui'se  would  be  the 
right  one. — 'A'/s  tov  ovQarov,  i.  e.  toward  the  place  where  God  dwells. 
— Zcovzt  X.  T.  )..  recounts  some  of  the  most  striking  attributes  of  the 
Godhead,  such  as  his  eternity,  and  his  supreme  creative  power ;  thus 
increasing  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion  and  the  oath. — Heaven,  earth, 
and  sea,  is  a  triplex  division  of  the  universe,  which  is  very  common  in 
the  Scriptures. 

Xqojo^  ovy.iTi  tazai,  lit.  time  shall  be  no  more,  i.  e.  there  shall  be  no 
more  delay,  or  no  longer  respite  shall  be  given,  to  the  persecutors  of 
the  church,  when  the  last  trumpet  shall  sound.     So  the  sequel : 

(7)  But  in  the  days  of  the  sound  of  the  seventh  angel,  when  he  shall  blow  tho 
trumpet,  then  is  the  mystery  of  God  completed,  as  he  hath  announced  to  his  ser- 
vants the  prophets. 

Ka)  InXtG&ti,  one  of  those  cases  where  the  Praeter  is  said,  by  the 
older  grammarians,  to  be  put  for  the  Future.  But  there  is  no  need  of 
such  an  enallage.  The  angel  means  to  say,  that  immediately  on  the 
sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet,  the  mystery  of  the  seven-sealed  book 
is  brought  to  a  close,  all  is  fully  completed.  Had  he  used  the  Future 
here,  it  would  have  left  open  an  indefinite  time  for  completion,  con- 
trary to  his  plain  intention.  In  fact  the  Greeks,  like  the  Hebrews, 
employed  a  Praeterite  sometimes  to  denote  future  actions  which  were 

dwell  with  minuteness  on  their  doom,  their  fearful  end — why  may  he  not  be 
spared  the  ditficult,  the  almost  impossible  task  ?  Enough  tliat  the  consummation 
is  distinctly  declared  by  the  angel,  10:  G,  7,  and  that  in  1 1:  13 — 1!)  the  triumph  of 
the  redeemed  is  heard,  because  the  church  of  God  is  delivered  from  the  hands  of 
its  enemies  and  persecutors.  What  the  seven  thunders  most  probably  declared 
fully  to  John,  he  is  restrained  from  writing  down,  or  rather,  he  is  indulged  with 
the  privilege  of  not  writing  it  down,  allhougii  a  sense  of  duty  and  fidelity  liad 
led  at  first  to  prepare  for  such  a  task. 

The  study  of  the  Aponalypse  will  lead  an  attentive  observer  to  see  and  feel, 
that  the  proprieties  resulting  from  our  sympathies,  and  the  congruities  of  repre- 
sentation, arc  very  apparent  in  it,  and  should  not  be  overlooked  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  it.  [s  there  not  a  plain  indication  here,  in  respect  to  suppressing  what  the 
seven  thunders  uttered,  that  the  particulars  of  the  final  caiaslrophe  were  not  to 
be /« /y  disclosed  ?  Pity  toward  the  weaknesses  of  men,  and  kind  regard  to  the 
feelings  of  the  apostle,  spared  him  the  agonizing  task. 
VOL.  II.  27 


210  THE  OPEN  BOOK  :  ChAP.  X.  7. 

regarded  as  certain.  So  in  Eurip.  Medea,  78,  analofisad^  ticQ,  £i 
aivAov  TTQoaoi'aofiev  veov  naXuioi,  i.  e.  we  have  been  undone,  in  case  we 
shall  {^dd  a  new  evil  to  the  old  one.  Plat.  Repub.  V.  p.  462.  See  other 
examples  of  the  like  nature  in  Kiihner's  Gr.  Gramm.  §  443.  2,  from 
Homer,  Plat,  and  Demosth. — Mvazi'iinm  means  the  secret  designs  of 
God  in  respect  to  the  enemies  of  his  church,  which  only  the  prophets, 
i.  e.  inspii'ed  men  in  the  Christian  church,  had  been  commissioned  to 
make  known.* 

EvtjyjtXios,  act.  voice,  and  the  only  instance  of  this  nature  in  the  N. 
Testament.  Usually  this  verb  has  the  Midd.  form,  and  governs  the 
Ace.  of  the  thing  and  Dat.  of  the  person.  But  often,  where  the  thing 
is  omitted,  the  perso?i  is  put  in  the  Ace. ;  e.  g.  Luke  3:  18.  Acts  8:  25. 
14:  21.  16:  10.  Here  the  construction  is  like  the  Hebrew  T|b:3ti-rx  Ti;2  , 
2  Sam.  18:  19  al.  In  translating  sv/jyytlioE  rovg  x.  z.  X,  we  are  obliged 
to  make  a  Dat.  after  the  verb,  in  conformity  with  our  usual  English 
idiom.  In  Greek  this  was  unnecessary,  although  it  might  have  been 
so  expressed. 

*  How,  in  the  face  of  such  a  declaration  as  tliis,  De  Wette,  Schott,  Ewald,  and 
LOcke,  can  still  represent  the  sealed  book  as  not  brought  to  a  close  in  chap,  xi, 
and  how  they  can  find  no  catustrophe  there,  1  am  unable  to  see,  specially  when  I 
compare  with  the  sequel  such  a  declaration  as  we  find  here.  How  language  can 
make  it  stronger  or  more  certain,  that  the  first  great  scene  of  the  drama  closes 
here,  it  would  be  difficult  to  tell.  The  angel  does  not  even  say  nXiaO'ijaeTat, 
which  might  leave  a  sequel  of  somewhat  indefinite  length,  but  he  expresses  the 
absolute  and  immediate  close  of  the  whole  in  the  strongest  manner  possible,  by 
the  Aor.  iTslta&7j-  Nor  is  tlie  nature  of  the  case  less  explicit  than  the  language. 
It  is  evident,  that  when  tlie  seventh  and  last  seat  was  broken,  all  the  heavenly 
world  expected  immediate  consummation,  and  looked  on  in  fearful  silence,  8:  ]. 
But  when  the  last  seal  is  divided  into  seven  parts  (seven  trumpets),  in  order  that 
the  long-suffering  of  God  might  be  exhibited,  and  time  be  protracted  so  that  the 
number  of  martyrs  should  be  completed,  6:  11,  (for  in  this  way  a  gradual  accom- 
plishment is  provided  for) ;  if,  1  say,  after  all  this  the  time  of  the  catastrophe  is 
still  further  protracted,  would  not  the  writer  have  given  us  some  express  intima- 
tion of  it.'  But  of  this  no  notice  whatever  is  given.  Exactly  the  reverse  is  con- 
tained in  the  passage  before  us.  The  second  subordinate  seven  (trumpets),  grow- 
ing out  of  the  seventh  seal,  admit  of  no  subdivision.  At  least,  this  would  be  so 
contrary  to  the  evident  nature  of  the  case,  and  lo  the  usual  meaning  of  complete- 
ness indicated  by  seven,  that  nothing  but  an  explicit  declaration  of  the  Author 
himself  should  satisfy  us  of  any  further  extension  of  the  contents  of  the  sealed 
book.  Scarcely  anything  respecting  the  plan  of  the  book  seems  to  me  more 
plain  and  certain  than  this;  and  I  find  it  difiicult  to  imagine  how  the  subject  can 
be  viewed  in  a  different  light,  even  after  attentively  considering  what  the  authors 
above  named  have  written  respecting  it.  That  chap.  xi.  brings  to  view  an  inter- 
val, between  the  appearance  of  the  angel  here  and  the  sounding  of  the  seventh 
trumpet,  is  indeed  sufficiently  plain.  But  what  the  angel  says,  in  the  passage 
before  us,  does  not  interfere  at  all  with  this.  His  declaration  is,  that  when  the 
seventh  trumpet  shall  sound,  there  shall  be  no  more  delay,  arsXeo&t]  fivaz^Qiov. 


THE  orEX  book:  Chap.  X.  8,  9.  211 

(8)  And  the  voice  which  I  hnd  heard  from  heaven,  again  spake  with  me  and 
eaid  :  Go,  take  the  little  open  book  in  the  hand  of"  the  anjrel,  who  is  standing 
upon  the  sea  and  upon  the  lanii. 

7fxot;(T«,  Aor.  I.  in  the  IMuperf.  sense  here  as  to  time  when,  but 
aoristicasto  continuance ;  N.  Testament  Gramm.  §  136.  5.3. — .^uXov- 
ca  .  .  .  kt'yovffa.  Part,  used  as  verb  in  the  Praeter,  //>•  beiupj  implied ; 
as  often  in  tliis  book.  Respecting  the  contents  of  the  little  book  prof- 
fered by  the  anj»el ;  see  the  remarks  on  v.  2  above.  Almost  an  exact 
prototype  is  in  Ezek.  3:  1 — 3,  where  the  prophet  eats  the  roll  presented 
to  him. 

(9)  And  I  went  to  the  angel,  speaking  to  him  to  give  me  the  little  book.  And 
he  saith  to  me  :  Take  it  and  eat  it  up;  and  it  shall  make  thy  stomach  bitter,  but 
in  thy  mouth  it  shall  be  sweet  as  honey. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  all  is  mere  supposed  and  symbolic  action 
here,  and  not  a  real  transaction.  Comp.  the  case  of  the  girdle  in  Jer. 
13:  1 — 7  ;  the  case  of  Ezekiel's  lying  on  one  side  390  days,  and  on  the 
other  40  days,  and  eating  bread  baked  with  dung,  Ezek.  4:  4 — 17 ; 
comp.  also  Hos.  i.  ii.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of  many  other  cases. 
Surely  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  anything  more  in  the  case  before 
us,  than  mere  symbol.  To  devour  a  hook  is  figurative  language,  like 
propinare,  imbibere,  devorare,  deglutire,  etc.,  employed  by  the  Latins  in 
order  to  designate  mental  action  and  eager  acquisition  by  the  mind. 
So  Jeremiah  also  speaks  of  '■'■eating  the  words  of  the  Lord,"  15:  16. 
In  4  Ezra  14:  38 — 40,  the  like  idea  is  conveyed  by  the  image  of  drink- 
ing from  a  cup  of  water  which  was  of  a  fiery  colour,  and  which  filled 
the  heart  of  the  seer  with  pain,  but  sharpened  his  raeraorji  and  increas- 
ed his  wisdom.  So  here,  the  contents  of  the  book  will  be  sweet  to  the 
taste,  but  bitter  to  the  stomach  of  the  seer ;  i.  e.  what  he  learns  from  the 
book  is  matter  both  of  joy  and  grief;  of  joy,  because  of  the  good  tidings 
respecting  the  faithful  disciples  of  Christ ;  of  grjef  because  of  the  evils 
which  were  to  come  upon  many  who  would  persevere  in  their  wicked- 
ness. To  the  same  purpose,  and  comprising  the  same  expressions,  is 
the  passage  in  Ezek.  3:  1 — 3. 

Why  then  should  not  our  interpretation  follow  the  path  here  marked  out.'  Is  it 
because  we  have  no  circumstantial,  account  of  the  final  fall  of  the  metropolis  .' 
Investigating  by  this  rule,  where  shall  we  find  a  catastrophe  at  all  in  the  Look  .' 
In  chap.  16:  17 — 21,  there  is  very  little  more  of  particularity,  than  in  11:  15 — 19. 
Nearly  the  same  circumstances  occur  in  both;  and  how  consummation  can  be 
plainly  found  in  the  first  passages,  just  alluded  to,  and  denied  in  the  second,  I  do 
not  see.  I  must  therefore  interpret  the  words  of  the  author,  by  taking  a  position 
on  a  different  ground. 


212  THE  OPEN  BOOK  :    ChAP.  X.  10,  11. 

(10)  And  I  took  the  little  book  from  the  liand  of  tlic  angel,  and  ate  it  up,  and 
it  was  in  my  mouth  sweet  as  honey,  and  wiien  I  had  eaten  it  my  stomach  was 
made  bitter. 

"EqjuyoVj  is  the  Aor.  II.  of  an  obsolete  root,  cpayco  ;  for  the  Pres.  and 
several  other  tenses,  ia&i'co  or  tdco  and  their  derivates  are  employed. 
Kart'rpayov  and  tqjuyov  are  plainly  employed  here  substantially  in  the 
same  sense.  If  there  be  a  difference,  it  may  be  expressed  perhaps  in 
English  by  ate  up  or  devoured  and  ate. 

(11)  Then  he  sailh  to  me :  Thou  must  prophesy  respecting  many  people  and 
nations  and  tongues  and  kings. 

I  have  referred  nolloig,  at  the  close  of  the  verse,  to  all  four  of  the 
nouns  which  precede  it,  because  I  deem  this  to  have  been  the  intention 
of  the  writer.  But  in  the  version,  our  English  idiom  demands  a  position 
of  the  adjective  different  from  that  in  the  Greek,  and  I  have  according- 
ly given  to  it  the  position  required.* 

*  Ewald,  in  order  to  make  out  his  theory  respecting  the  little  book,  (see  on  v. 
2  above),  says,  that  we  must  separate  v.  11  from  vs.  8 — 10.  But  no  good  reason 
for  so  doing  is  apparent  to  me ;  nor  does  the  nature  of  the  case,  as  1  apprehend 
the  matter,  permit  such  a  divulsion.  The  conference  of  the  angel  with  John  ends 
with  chap.  x.  A  new  scene  begins  with  chap,  xi,  an  episode  not  unlike  to  that 
in  chap,  vii,  before  the  breaking  of  the  seventh  seal,  where  a  consummation  was 
naturally  to  be  expected.  There  the  servants  of  God  are  sealed  in  their  foreheads, 
and  thus  secured  against  impending  evils.  Here,  where  the  last  and  finishing 
part  of  the  crisis  is  near  at  hand,  the  temple  of  God,  i.  e.  the  holy  place  with  the 
essential  parts  of  worship,  the  residence  of  the  Divinity,  is  meted  out  for  the  like 
purpose  of  safety.  All  that  is  external  and  merely  ritual  is  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion. The  Jewish  dispensation,  as  to  its  exterior,  has  now  come  to  its  final  close, 
and  a  new  and  more  purely  spiritual  religion  is  to  take  its  place. 

How  can  all  this,  now,  cohere  and  unite  with  the  vision,  in  which  the  angel 
presents  the  little  book.'  Even  Ewald  does  not  plead  for  this  in  his  note  here; 
yet  in  his  remarks  on  chap.  10:  1  (p.  187)  he  strenuou.sly  defends  the  unity  of  10: 
1 — 11:  13.  If  the  reader  feels  any  difficulty  about  a  transition  here  (in  11:  1  seq.) 
to  anotlier  vision,  because  yiai  simply  is  employed  as  the  index  of  it,  he  needs  only 
to  be  reminded,  that  such  transitions  are  common  throughout  the  whole  book. 
He  is  referred,  for  a  full  disclosure  of  this,  to  the  notes  on  5:  1. 

As  to  the  speaker  in  the  verse  before  us,  he  is  doubtless  the  angel  who  held  the 
little  book  in  his  hand.  But  as  to  the  speaker  in  11:  1  {?Jyojv),  I  take  him  to  be 
quite  a  different  person  from  the  angel,  although  his  name  is  not  given.  But  in 
order  to  discover  who  he  is,  we  may  ask:  Who  are  my  two  witnesses  in  v.  3.' 
Ewald  himself  being  judge  (pp.  194,  200),  they  are  the  v/itnesses  of  Christ.  It  is 
Christ  then  who  speaks  here,  and  who  commissions  John  to  measure  off  the  holy 
part  of  the  temple  for  preservation.  And  if  this  is  true,  (and  surely  it  must  be 
either  Christ  or  God),  then  is  there  a  new  vision  here,  and  the  angel  of  chap.  x. 
is  no  longer  the  special  agent  in  chap.  xi.  Should  the  reader  feel  any  difficulty 
in  regard  to  the  introduction  of  a  nezo  agent  without  naming  him,  the  perusal  of 
the  book  through  will  satisfy  him,  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Hebrew  iks,  N"!p''l, 
etc.,  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  often  left  to  be  supplied  by  the  reader,  so  in  respect 


THE  TEiMPLK :   Chap.  XI.  1 ,  2.  218 

'Em  XaoT^  x.  r.  X.  our  vci-sion  renders :  "  Before  many  people,  etc." 
But  althoii;j:I»  tni  \s  capable  of  such  a  sense,  we  can  hardly  sujjpose  the 
angel  to  have  ilirected  John  to  write  or  to  utter  the  Apocalypse  in  pres- 
ence of  many  people,  etc.  Plainly  the  contents  of  the  book,  in  the  se- 
quel, have  respect  to  many  people.  With  this  agt-ees  the  natural  mean- 
ing of  ini,  in  such  a  connection  as  that  in  which  it  here  stands. 


THE  TEMPLE:  CHAP.  XI.  1,2. 

[The  first  two  verses  of  tliis  chapter  have  occasioned  much  troul)le  to 
conuncnlators ;  and  the  variety  of  oj)inion  respecting  them  is  so  great,  that 
even  to  give  a  tolerably  full  account  of  it  would  occupy  many  pages.  I  shall 
briefly  state  my  own  api)reiicnsions  respecting  the  passage,  and  then  glance 
at  some  of  the  other  interpretations  wliicli  arc  entitled  to  particular  notice. 

No  commentator  that  I  have  been  able  to  consult,  seems  to  have  made 
the  com[)arison  between  the  present  passage  and  Rev.  vii.  Previous  to 
this  last  passage,  as  has  been  noted  above,  six  seals  had  been  mentioned  as 
already  opened,  and  the  opening  of  the  seventh  and  last  was  now  expected. 
But  before  this  was  iiroken,  the  servaiUs  of  God  were  to  be  impressed  upon 
tlieir  foreheads  by  his  seal,  which  tlius  became  the  eml»lem  of  protection 
and  safety  in  respect  to  impending  evils.  Unexpectedly  to  the  spectators, 
the  seventh  seal  is  disparted,  so  that  a  gradual  accomplishment  of  the  woes 
wiiich  it  threatens  is  to  take  place.  (I  say  unexpededh/,  because  8:  1  shows 
tliat  the  final  catastrojjhe  was  expected  forthwith).  This  gradation  is  marked 
by  the  seven  truuipets.  Six  of  these  have  now  been  sounded ;  and  there 
remains,  at  the  point  of  time  where  we  now  are,  only  one  to  close  the 
scene.  And  here  comes  in  another  interpositinn,  viz.  tliat  in  respect  to  sav- 
ing a  part  of  the  temple,  like  to  that  in  chap.  vii.  with  res))ect  to  saving 
Christians  from  impending  evils.  Christians,  indeed,  have  already  been 
made  secure,  in  the  case  now  before  us.  But  the  close  of  the  Jewish  or 
Mosaic  institutions  is  near  at  hand.  Shall  all  which  pertained  to  these  now 
go  to  ruin  ?  Or  is  there  not  something,  that  constitutes  the  essential  unity 
of  religion  under  both  dispensations,  wiiich  is  worthy  of  preservation,  and 
•which  therefore  must  be  preserved?  If  the  ground  tjiken  by  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  correct,  (which  we  may  well  believe),  tlien 
the  basis  of  Judaism  and  Christianity  is  the  same. 

Besides ;  how  can  we  consider  the  representation  before  us  as  anything 
more  than  mere  symhol7  Is  it  to  be  once  imagined,  that  John  actually  ex- 
pected the  Gentiles,  who  would  tread  down  the  holy  city  and  the  exterior 
part  of  the  tem[)le  [jr,v  avlijv  tjjv  e^w&iv),  to  spare  the  interior  part  of  the 
temple  and  the  worshippers  there  ?  This  w^ould  be  to  suppose  him  wholly 
ignorant  of  the  manner  in  which  war  was  conducted,  at  the  time  when  he 
lived.  Moreover,  as  to  matter  of  fact,  the  reverse  of  what  is  implied  by  such 
a  supposition  actually  took  place.     The  temple — the  very  Sanctum  itself^ — 

to  the  agent  or  speaker  in  the  Apocalypse,  we  are  oflen  obliged  to  resort  to  the 
context  in  order  to  discover  who  he  is;  e.  g.  Rev.  22:  12  al.  The  A/jwv  in  11:  1 
is  sufBciently  explained  by  the  fta^rvai fiov  in  v.  3.  If  these  views  are  correct, 
we  cannot  hesitate  to  connect  10:  11  with  10:  8 — 10. 


214  THE  TEMPLE  :   Chap.  XL  1,  2. 

was  the  great  slaughter  house,  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion ;  and  all 
the  sacred  building  was  destroyed  together,  at  one  and  the  same  period. 
Neither  fact  nor  probability,  therefore,  plead  for  a  literal  inter])retation  in 
this  case.  And  besides  this,  wliat  shall  we  say  o^  measuring  the  worshippers 
(v.  ])  in  a  literal  sense,  in  order  that  they  might  be  preserved? 

For  these  reasons  the  whole  transaction  is  to  be  regarded  merely  as  a  sym- 
bolical matter.  Yet  sijmbul  must  of  course  signify  something;  and  what  is  that 
something  in  the  present  case  ?  So  far  as  I  can  understand  the  meaning 
of  the  symbolic  transaction  before  us,  its  design  seems  plainly  to  be  this, 
viz.  to  prefigure  the  preservation  of  all  which  was  fundamental  and  essential  in 
the  ancient  religion,  notwithstanding  the  destruction  of  all  that  was  external, 
in  respect  to  tlie  temple,  the  city,  and  the  ancient  people  of  God.  It  is  as 
much  as  to  say:  Amid  the  ruin  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  while  the  holy 
city  is  reduced  to  ashes,  and  all  the  sacred  ritual  of  worship  forever  closed, 
there  are  some  imperishable  things  which  will  survive  the  work  of  de- 
struction, and  over  which  the  invading  hostile  nations  have  no  power.  Is 
not  the  preservation  of  the  Sanctum  of  the  temple  an  appropriate  and  signi- 
ficant emblem  of  this  ? 

The  greater  part  of  the  commentators  have  passed  over  this  paragraph 
sicco  pede,  witliout  even  seeming  to  feel  that  there  was  any  difficulty  in  the 
case.  A  few  liave  given  some  hints;  specimens  of  which  I  will  now  lay 
before  the  reader.  Zegerus :  '  The  temple  means  the  church ;  the  altar, 
Christ;  or  the  temple  and  altar  mean  Christ,  who  with  his  two-fold  nature 
is  the  temple  of  God  and  the  altar  of  the  church.  TTie  porch  ivilhout  means 
heretics  and  pseudo-Christians.  To  cast  them  out  is  to  excommunicate 
them.'     See  Crit.  Sac.  Londinenses  on  Rev.  xi. 

Vitringa:  'The  interior  temple  means  true  Christians;  the  exterior,  false 
Christians,  heretics,  etc. ;  the  altar  means  Christ;  measuring  the  temple  and 
worshippers  is  scrutinizing  the  character  of  Christians  real  or  professed ; 
the  casting  out  of  the  outer  court  is  excommunicating  false  professors ;  the 
heathen  who  are  to  tread  down  the  temple  and  city,  are  Christians  in  name 
only,  (and  therefore  called  heathen),  who  are  to  form  an  external  church  and 
have  dominion  over  it,  suppressing  at  the  same  time  the  true  worshippers 
of  God,  until  at  last  God  shall  exclude  them  from  even  the  external  pale  of 
his  church.'  Comm.  in  loc. 

Heinr-ichs  (in  Comm.)  thinks  that  John,  like  Ezekiel  (chap,  xl — xlviii.), 
designed  to  give  a  sketch  of  a  literally  new  temple,  more  holy  and  perfect, 
which  would  be  erected  under  the  new  dispensation,  in  which  only  the 
Sanctum  of  the  old  one  would  be  preserved.  Comm.  in  loc. 

Ewald  thinks  that  John  designed  to  represent  tlie  most  holy  and  precious 
part  of  the  temple,  as  actually  to  be  saved  from  the  ravages  of  the  invad- 
ing enemy ;  and  that  he  has  said  this  out  of  compassion  to  Jewish  prejudi- 
ces still  cleaving  to  the  ininds  of  Hebrew  Christians,  as  well  as  to  those  of 
proper  Jews.  He  says,  that  the  author  means  to  include  both  pious  Jews 
and  Christians  among  the  ivorshippers  mentioned  in  v.  1.  Whether  John 
believed  that  such  would  be  the  fiict,  viz.,  that  the  Sanctum  of  the  temple 
would  be  spared,  or  whether  he  only  made  such  a  representation  in  order 
to  conciliate  Jewish  sympathies,  Ewald  does  not  say ;  but  the  manner  of 
his  representation  would  seem  to  indicate  the  former  opinion,  viz.  that  the 
writer  really  hoped  and  expected  the  Sanctum  would  be  spared. 

Bleek  gives  a  different  and  perhaps  in  some  respects  more  probable 


mm 


THE  TEMPLE  I    CuAP.  XL  1,  2.  215 

view  of  the  onso.  Ho  tliiiiks  that  Joliii  siipposod  tlin  city  anil  temple  would 
be  invaded  and  tnxlden  down  for  torty-two  months  hy  the  heatiien;  init 
tiiat  he"  expected  the  sanctuary  wouhl  he  spared,  and  jjiven  up  to  Christians 
during  that  period,  because  they  are  "  priests  unto  God,"  and  would  have 
access  therefore  to  the  holy  places  in  the  temple,  where  priests  oidy  were 
allowed  to  come.  Thus  he  makes  out  a  kind  of  literal  and  at  the  same 
time  ligurative  meaning  ;  with  much  ingenuity  indeed,  but  still,  as  I  appre- 
hend, in  a  maimer  foreign  to  the  true  design  of  the  Apocalyptist.  lileek 
supposes  that  John  had  not  the  least  expectation  of  anything  more  than  a 
mere  Icmporan/  invasion  and  subjection  of  the  city;  and  he  represents 
John  as  indicating  plainly  that  the  city  would  ultimately  be  spared. 

The  interpretations  of  Zegenis  and  Vitringa  are  a  striking  speciinen  of 
the  aliijuid  ex  aliquo  in  the  exegesis  of  the  Apocalypse  ;  a  specimen,  how- 
ever, tiie  like  of  which  may  be  found  in  multitudes  of  writers.  The  iuter- 
pretations  of  Ileiin-ichs,  Ewald,  and  lileek,  all  stand  on  the  ground,  that  the 
writer  of  the  book  before  us  was  not  only  ignorant  of  the  future,  but  that  he 
designed  nothing  more  than  to  ex[)ress  his  hopes,  and  give  vent  to  his  re- 
maining Jewish  sympathies  for  the  literal  temple  and  its  ritual.  lint  viewed 
in  their  pro[)er  light,  even  these  hopes  seem  to  me  to  be  quite  destitute  of 
probability.  The  writer  of  the  Apocaly|)se,  whether  insi)ired  or  not,  well 
knew  the  embittered  nature  of  the  contest  betwee;i  the  Romans  and  the 
Jews.  As  well  did  he  know,  also,  the  vehemence  of  the  Jewish  supersti- 
tions, and  of  coiu'se  that  they  would  be  likely,  in  the  natiual  course  of 
things,  to  occasion  the  destruction  of  the  temi)le  and  worship  which  ap- 
peared to  he  the  central  |)oint  of  these  superstitions,  and  through  them  of 
insurrections  among  the  Jews  and  opposition  to  the  authority  of  the  Ro- 
mans. How  could  he  then,  with  any  good  ground  of  ho[)e,  expect  the 
temple  to  be  spared?  Or  how  could  he  suppose  that  Christians,  already 
the  objects  of  embittered  persecution  by  Nero,  would  be  permitted  to  re- 
tain possession  of  the  Sanctum  (according  to  Ewald  and  Bleek) ;  or  to  re- 
build another  structure  there  more  magnificent  than  the  former  one  ?  (ac- 
cording to  Heimichs).  In  whatever  light  this  matter  is  viewed,  the  inter- 
pretations before  us  look  improbable,  even  when  contemplated  from  the 
position  in  which  these  critics  would  fain  place  us. 

But  if  John  (whether  apostle  or  not)  was  really  what  he  declares  himself 
to  be,  i.  e.  tV  nvtvpajL  when  he  wrote  this  book  or  had  these  visions,  then 
of  course  do  the  ex[)Ositions  of  the  last  named  writers,  and  all  others  that 
arc  like  them,  fall  entirely  to  the  ground.  Fads  contradict  the  declara- 
tions of  John,  in  case  they  are  expounded  as  the  writers  named  bid  us  to  ex- 
pound them.  It  comes  at  last  then  to  the  simple  question,  whether  being  h 
nviVfjiuri  affords  any  security  against  erroneous  and  uulbundcd  expectations .'' 
These  critics  would  doubtless  answer  this  question  at  once  in  the  negative ; 
I  am  as  fully  persuaded,  that  an  affirmative  answer  is  the  proper  one. 

In  a  word  ;  w  hy  should  we,  with  these  interpreters,  adopt  an  exegesis 
which  is  half  literal  and  half  figurative  ?  Why  should  we  adojit  one  which 
on  its  veiT  face  would  show  that  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  was  merely 
a  j)rejurliced  Jew,  and  besides  this,  but  a  very  poor  sort  of  augurer  as  to 
the  future  ?  Why  should  we  adopt  one,  which  contradicts  facts  that  ac- 
tually took  place  ?  Or  why  should  we  eo  spirilualize,  with  the  older  wi it- 
ers, a^  to  make  out  aliquid  ex  aliquo  ?  I  may  even  ask  with  some  empha- 
sis :     Why  should  we  do  any  part  of  this,  when  there  is  an  easy  and  nat- 


216  THE  TEMPLE  :  Chap.  XL  1. 

ural  interpretation,  in  harmony  with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  book,  which 
gives  a  plain  and  iutcHigible  sense,  and  one  fraught  with  appropriate  mean- 
ing? 

Eichhorn,  previous  to  the  productions  of  Bleek,  Heinrichs,  and  Ewald, 
had  ah-eady  set  an  example  of  interpretation  here,  which  Lange  folloAved, 
and  which  others  would  have  done  well  to  follow ;  and  although  his  book 
is  not  always  wanting  in  exegesis  which  is  improbable  and  incongruous, 
yet  here  he  has  hap])ily  hit  upon  a  proper  medium  between  two  extremes. 
For  substance  his  views  are  such  as  I  have  given  above,  and  which  seem 
to  me  altogether  preferable  to  those  of  most  succeeding  commentators.] 

(1)  And  there  was  given  to  me  a  reed  like  to  a  staff,  saying  :  Rise  and  measure 
the  temple  of  God,  and  the  altar,  and  those  who  worship  therein. 

Kulfifiog  is  a  generic  word,  and  sometimes  means,  as  here,  a  light 
oneasuring-rod,  sometimes  a  staff  for  the  hand,  and  sometimes  a  pen. 
The  use  of  the  y.uXa^og  depends  on  the  size.  In  Ezek.  40:  3,  such  a 
reed  is  called  nix:!!  nsp  a  reed  of  measurement ;  and  the  passage  there 
is  the  model,  in  some  respects,  of  the  one  before  us. —  Of^oiog  ^«(35q}, 
like  to  a  staff  or  sceptre,  i.  e.  like  to  it  in  regard  to  size,  and  therefore 
convenient  for  handling.  Or  we  may  construe  the  clause  in  another 
way.  In  Heb.  '^^4. ,  which  usually  means  staff,  rod,  also  means  measu- 
ring rod  or  pole,  Ps.  74:  2.  Jer,  10:  16.  51:  19,  in  these  cases  =  meas- 
ured or  meted  portion.  The  Sept.  in  more  than  twenty -five  instances  trans- 
late this  word  by  qadSog ;  and  in  like  manner  do  they  translate  the  first 
two  instances  just  mentioned.  We  may  therefore  interpret  thus  :  A 
reed  was  given  me  like  to  a  measuring-rod,  i.  e.  like  to  it  in  respect  to 
length,  size,  etc. 

Atyow — but  who  is  the  speaker  ?  The  vulgate  text  has  supplied  the 
agent,  by  inserting :  y.ai  6  ayytlog  elGr)'jy.£i.  But  this  clause  is  justly 
rejected,  as  wanting  sufficient  support  from  Mss.  It  is  moreover  evident- 
ly against  the  tenor  of  the  sequel,  for  v.  3  (huqtvoiv  fiov)  shows  that 
God  or  Christ  must  have  been  the  speaker  in  this  case.  The  addition 
in  the  vulgate  text  seems  to  be  a  gloss  introduced  from  Zech.  3:  5,  lat- 
ter clause.  Evidently  the  speaker,  in  this  verse,  is  the  person  who  gave 
John  the  measuring-rod.  But  as  the  passive  voice  (ido&tj)  is  here  used, 
the  agent  in  this  case  is  not  designated.  This  must  be  supplied,  there- 
fore, from  the  context,  and  v.  3  enables  us  to  supply  the  proper  Nomi- 
native. The  interpretation  which  makes  'AuXuixog  itself  the  speaker,  is 
not  worth  notice,  except  as  a  fact  which  exhibits  the  possibility  of  any 
and  every  extravagance  in  interpretation.  See  further  in  the  remarks 
at  tlie  close  of  the  preceding  chaptei*. 

"EyeiQcu,  rise,  =  c^p  or  iT:^p  so  common  in  the  Psalms.  It  does  not 
imply  merely  rising  up  from  a  sitting  or  reclining  posture,  but  rousing 
ujj  to  action  from  a  state  of  inaction  ;  and  so  it  is  like  the  Latin  age^ 
agedum,  etc. — MhQtjffov  .  .  .  zov  ^eov,  offers  no  difficulty  as  to  the 


THETEjrPLE:  Chap.  XL  2.  217 

simple  meaning  of  the  words,  but  merely  as  to  the  design  or  object  of 
the  action.  In  Ezek.  40:  3  seq.,  the  angel  who  has  the  measuring-rod 
uses  it  in  the  way  of  metiirg  out  the  |)ro|)orlions  of  a  neio  temple  to  be 
erected.  In  Zech.  2:  1  seq.,  the  angel  with  a  mcasunng-line  employs 
it  for  the  like  purpose  in  respect  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  But  in  Lam. 
2:  8.  2  Kings  21:  13.  Is.  34:  11.  Araos  7:8,  9,  a/meand/)/«mWtweare 
employed  as  symbols  of  destruction  ;  and  these  are  altogctlun'  analogous 
to  the  cjise  before  us.  As  a  part  is  to  be  preserved,  and  a  part  to  be 
destroyed,  so  the  former  has  boundaries  assigned  to  it,  beyond  which 
destruction  cannot  be  extended. — QixjtciGTtjQiov  means  the  altar,  either 
for  burnt  offerings  or  for  incense  ;  for  the  word  is  employed  in  respect 
to  both,  although  it  is  more  appropriate  to  the  former  meaning,  so  far  as 
etymology  is  concerned.  But  here  doubtless  it  means  the  altar  of  in- 
cense, which  stood  near  the  most  holy  place. 

Kui  roi'b  TiQoaxvrovvTag  if  avzco,  (sc.  fv  tw  vcko).  But  how  could 
the  seer  measure  the  worshippers  with  a  nuhtuog  ?  He  could  not,  in  a 
literal  sense.  I  understand  the  passage,  therefore,  as  exhibiting  a  zeug- 
ma, I.  e.  a  v'erb  is  connected  with  two  nouns,  while  it  has  a  sense  appro- 
priate only  to  one.  So  in  Luke  1:  64,  awcijjf  i>?/  to  OToitn  .  .  .  xul  ij 
yP.aj(7fT«;  1  Cor.  3:  2,  ydXa  vfictg  moTiaa,  ov  ^Qoifta.  Comp.  1  Tim.  4: 
3,  and  Homer's  otiov  x«/  oizop  idovrs-;,  Gramm.  §  192.  In  the  present 
case  we  have  only  to  supply  some  appropriate  verb  to  be  connected  with 
7iQO(jy.i>vovt'Tag,  such  as  ).6yt(Tui,  take  an  account  of;  or  we  may  simply 
transfer  the  generic  sense  of  ^itTQi^aov  so  as  to  be  connected  with  this  noun, 
and  the  meaning  will  be  good,  viz.,  mete  out,  apportion  off,  quasi — 
'  draw  a  line  of  circumvallation  around  the  inner  temple  and  the  wor- 
shippers in  spirit  and  in  truth  who  are  there  ;  for  such  shall  be  protected 
amid  the  general  ruin.' — That  Iv  uvtco  means  i^i  the  temple,  seems  suffi- 
ciently plain  from  the  nature  of  the  case.  Agreement  of  a  pronoun 
with  a  more  remote  antecedent,  is  by  no  means  an  unusual  phenomenon 
in  the  sacred  writings ;  Gramm.  §  124.  4.  Note.  3. 

(2)  But  the  porch  without  tlie  temple  cast  out,  and  measure  it  not,  for  it  is 
given  up  to  llie  Gentiles;  and  they  shall  tread  the  holy  city  under  foot  forty  and 
two  months. 

TtjV  avXijV  rijv  e^a&ev.  That  the  temple  was  divided  in  the  manner 
here  indicated,  is  plain  from  Ezek.  40:  17,  19,  where  we  have  "i^n^ 
I'S'^san  and  ■'Jiii'^nn  '^•Jtrin ,  i.  e.  the  inner  court  and  the  outer  court.  The 
Sanctum  Sanctorum,  and  the  vaog  or  apartment  for  incense  and  sacri- 
fices, constituted  the  inner  court,  which  only  the  priests  could  frequent ; 
the  remaining  or  front  part  of  the  building  constituted  another  court, 
where  worshippers  of  the  common  order  assembled;  and  still  farther 
out  was  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  i.  e.  a  space  where  foreigners  might 

VOL.  II.  28 


218  THE  TEMPLE  :  Chap.  XL  2. 

worship.  In  the  present  case,  the  worshippers  in  the  inner  court  are  of 
course  priests  ;  and  Christians,  it  should  be  remembered  here,  are  kings 
and  priests  to  God,  and  to  them  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  temple  of 
God  are  opened  ;  comp.  Rev.  11:  19,  also  Heb.  9:  8  and  10:  19,  20. 
Matt.  27:  51. 

"E-A^uXt  a^co  is  to  be  taken  in  a  qualified  or  secondary  sense  here, 
(for  the  literal  meaning  would  make  no  good  sense),  i.  e.  it  means  here 
to  reject,  despise,  neglect;  comp.  Luke  6:  22.  Kal  fiij  avTtjv  ^EZQ/jarjg 
explains  the  meaning  of  the  preceding  clause.  As  he  did  not  include 
the  exterior  court  in  his  measurement  for  preservation,  so  he  gave  it  up 
of  course  to  destruction. 

To?g  tOvhGi,  to  the  heathen  or  Gentiles.  That  the  Romans  are  meant 
in  this  case,  seems  to  be  very  obvious,  if  we  suppose  the  Apocalypse  to 
have  been  written  during  the  latter  part  of  Nero's  reign,  when  the  Jew- 
ish troubles  had  actually  begun.  The  meaning  plainly  is,  that  by  the 
decree  of  Heaven  the  exterior  temple  was  to  be  given  up  to  the  Gen- 
tiles.— rioXiv  dyiav,  holy  city,  a  familiar  name, of  Jerusalem,  comp.  Neh. 
11:  1,  18.  Is.  48:  2.  Matt.  4:  5.  27:  53  ;  a  name  which  it  still  preserves. 
This  seems  plainly  to  identify  the  special  object  which  is  to  be  destroy- 
ed ;  and  from  the  impending  ruin,  the  true  spiritual  worship  and  wor- 
shippers of  God  are  to  be  preserved. 

TlaTtjOovoi,  shall  tread  down,  trample  upon,  which  of  course  implies 
thorough  subjection  and  treating  with  great  indignity.  Ewald  construes 
it  as  designating  only  profanation  by  the  presence  of  the  heathen.  But 
surely  'lEQovaaXij^  tatui  nazovi^tvij  vno  i&vcov,  in  Luke  21:  24,  in  con- 
nection with  the  context,  means  something  more  than  profaning.  In- 
deed, how  can  we  compare  the  expression  here  with  that  in  Luke,  with- 
out being  necessitated  to  suppose,  that  the  object  of  both  passages  is  pre- 
cisely the  same  ?  And  if  so,  nothing  can  be  more  certain,  than  that  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  is  threatened,  and  not 
merely  profanation  by  the  presence  of  heathen. 

I^orty  and  two  months.  Is  this  period  to  be  regarded  as  literal,  or  as 
merely  a  figurative  mode  of  designating  a  short  period,  by  a  reference  to  a 
well  known  period  of  time  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  7:  25.  12:  7?  The 
same  question  occurs  in  regard  to  the  next  verse,  and  some  other  pas- 
sages in  the  sequel.  After  all  the  investigation  which  I  have  been  able 
to  make,  I  feel  compelled  to  believe  that  the  writer  refers  to  a  literal 
and  definite  period,  although  not  so  exact  that  a  single  day,  or  even  a 
few  days,  of  variation  from  it  would  interfere  with  the  object  he  has  in 
view.  It  is  certain  that  the  invasion  of  the  Romans  lasted  just  about  the 
length  of  the  period  named,  until  Jerusalem  was  taken.  And  although 
the  city  itself  was  not  besieged  so  long,  yet  the  metropolis,  in  this  case, 
as  in  innumerable  others  in  both  Testaments,  appears  to  stand  for  the 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap,  XL  3.  219 

countrv  of  Jiidea,  During  the  invasion  of  Judea  by  the  "Romans,  the 
faithful  testimony  of  tlie  persecuted  witnesses  for  Christianity  is  con- 
tinued, while  at  last  they  are  slain.  The  patience  of  God  in  deferring 
80  long  the  destruction  of  the  persecutors,  is  displayed  by  this ;  and  es- 
pecially his  mercy  in  continuing  to  warn  and  reprove  them.  This  is  a 
natural,  simple,  and  easy  method  of  interpretation,  to  say  the  least,  and 
one  which,  although  it  is  not  ditlicult  to  raise  objections  against  it,  I  feel 
constrained  to  adopt. 

In  order  to  siive  repetition  I  must  refer  the  reader,  for  the  discussion 
of  the  whole  subject  in  relation  to  times  designated  by  the  Apocalypse, 
to  Excursus  V.  at  the  end  of  this  volume  ;  and  for  a  more  ample  discus- 
sion, to  my  little  work  entitled  Hints  on  the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy. 

(3)  And  1  will  give  to  my  two  witnesses,  and  they  shall  prophesy  a  thousand 
two  hundred  and  sixty  days,  cinthed  in  sack-cloth. 

But  who  are  these  two  witnesses  ?  A  question  that  has  been  the  oc- 
casion, perhaps,  of  more  conjecture  and  more  unlimited  speculation  than 
almost  any  other  which  the  Apocalypse  has  originated.  Some  notice  of 
the  efforts  which  interpreters  have  made  to  answer  it,  seems  to  be  neces- 
sary in  a  case  like  the  present ;  and  particularly  so,  inasmuch  as  the 
subject  is  not  without  real  difficulties  even  when  viewed  in  its  most  sim- 
ple light.  If  this  notice  sliould  answer  no  other  purpose  than  a  warning 
against  groundless  and  boundless  conjecture,  and  a  caution  against  ad- 
mitting anything  which  will  destroy  the  connection  and  congruity  of  the 
author's  representations,  yet  this  of  itself  would  be  a  sufficient  apology 
for  introducing  iu 


Inquiry  respecting  the  Two  Witnesses. 

In  pui-suing  the  object  of  this  Inquiry,  I  shall  first  introduce  in  the  brief- 
est manner  possible,  those  opinions  respecting  the  two  witnesses  which  are 
plainly  nothing  jjut  mere  conjectures,  and  therefore  not  entitled  to  any  seri- 
ous examination.  I  shall  then  subjoin  some  other  views  to  which  particu- 
lar importance  has  been  recently  attached,  and  which  therefore  need  some 
discussion. 

I.  Conjectures  in  respect  to  the  Two  Witnesses. 

(a)  They  are  the  O.  and  N.  Testament;  so  Melchior,  Alfelman,  and  re- 
cently Croly.  [b)  They  mean  aU  preachers  instructed  by  the  Law  and  the 
Gospel ;  so  Pannonius  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  (c)  Christ  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist; rijertinus.  id)  Pope  Sylvester  and  Mena,  who  wrote  against  the  F^u- 
tychians ;  Lyranus  and  Ederus.  (e)  Francis  and  Dominic,  the  respective 
beads  of  two  orders  of  monks;  quoted  in  Cornelius  a  I^jtide.  (/)  The 
great  wisdom  and  sanctity  of  the  ])rimitive  preachers;  Alcassar.  ip)  John 
Huss  and  Luther ;  so  Horzoff.  Others ;  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague, 
(fc)  The  Waldenses  and  Albigenses ;  and  the  Apocalyptist  names  two,  be- 


220  THE  TWO  witnesses:  Chap.  XL  3. 

cause  of  the  Law  and  the  Gospel,  and  also  with  respect  to  such  pairs  in  sa- 
cred history  as  Moses  and  Aaron,  Elijali  and  EHsha,  Joshna  and  Zerubba- 
bel;  lie  had  also  his  eye  iijion  John  Hiiss  and  Jerome  of  Prague;  Vitringa. 
Andrew  Fuller  also  supposes  the  two  witnesses  are  the  Waldenses  and  Al- 
bigenses ;  Lect.  on  Apoc.  in  loc.  (i)  The  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  in 
Aelia,  (the  new  name  of  the  city  built  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem  by  Adrian), 
who  preached  to  Jews  and  Gentiles  the  necessity  of  reformation ;  Grotius, 
and  after  him  Hammond. 

This  syllal)us  comprises  only  a  part  of  the  interpretations  given  to  the 
verse  before  us.  The  intelligent  reader,  who  is  in  any  tolerable  measure 
acquainted  with  the  criticism  of  the  present  day,  needs  no  forma!  refutation 
of  such  interpretations.  Almost  all  are  wholly  inappropriate,  in  that  they 
have  respect  not  to  the  period  of  the  invasion  of  Palestine  by  the  Romans, 
but  to  one  a  long  time  afterwards.  One  of  them  (c)  even  falls  upon  a 
period  antecedent  to  the  death  of  Christ.  The  whole  of  them,  with  some 
slight  exception  in  the  cases  (6)  and  (/),  are  entirely  incongruous  and  ir- 
relevant. 

II.  Other  views  which  have  a  better  claim  to  be  examined. 

(1)  The  two  witnesses  are  the  two  high-priests,  Anavus  and  Jesxis ;  who 
nobly  withstood  the  Zealots  in  Jerusalem,  and  were  massacred  by  them, 
Jos.  Bell.  Jud.  IV.  3.  13 — 6.  1.  So  Herder  and  Eichhorn;  and  after  the 
latter,  his  humble  imitator,  F.  A.  L.  Matthaei,  and  others. 

The  reason  for  i-ejecting  this  opinion,  which  was  made  current  for  a 
time  through  the  eloquence  and  ability  of  Herder  and  Eichhorn,  are  brief, 
and  in  my  apprehension  entirely  conclusive,  {n)  These  two  high-priests 
were  zealous  Jews  and  the  enemies  of  Christianity.  How  then  could  the 
Saviour  say  of  them:  Mt  ivitnessesf  v.  3.  And  how  could  he  be  called 
THEIR  Lord7  V.  8.  If  what  Bleek  (Zeitschrift  von  Schleiermacher,  etc., 
Heft  IL  p.  269),  Hanlein  (Theol.  Journal  von  H.  and  Ammon,  IIL  p.  380), 
and  Lange  (Comm.  in  Apoc.  11:  10,  11)  say,  were  true,  viz.  that  Ananus 
was  an  active  persecutor  of  Christians,  and  occasioned  the  death  of  James 
the  Lord's  brother,  then  the  case  would  be  more  glaring  still,  and  all 
attempts  to  reconcile  their  character  with  the  description  in  Rev.  11:  3 — 13 
must  be  vain.  But  in  respect  to  this  particular  jjoint,  these  writers  seem  to 
have  erred.  There  was  indeed  an  Ananus,  a  Ijigh-priest,  Avho  occasioned 
the  death  of  James  ;  but  he  was  slain  by  the  Sicarii  in  A.  D.  66;  Jos.  Antiq. 
XX.  9.  1  and  Bell.  Jud.  II.  17.  9.  But  the  Ananus  and  Jesus  who  with- 
stood the  Sicarii,  and  were  massacred  by  them  and  the  Idumaeans,  were 
other  and  different  persons,  and  were  assassinated  in  A.  D.  67;  Jos.  Bell. 
Jud.  IV.  3.  13 — 5.  2,  Still,  that  Ananus  and  Jesus  were  zealous  Jews,  and 
opposed  to  Christianity,  no  one  can  doubt  who  reads  their  history,  {b)  How 
can  these  two  high-priests  be  said  to  prophesy  during  the  1260  days  of  the 
invasion,  when  in  fact  they  were  destroyed  during  the  very  first  year  of  it, 
viz.  during  A.  D.  67  ?  (c)  What  mean  their  resurrection  and  ascension  to 
heaven  ?  (d)  In  what  sense  could  the  Apocalyptist  say,  that  these  two 
high-priests  possessed  miraculous  powers,  like  those  of  Moses  and  Elijah  ? 
vs.  5,  6.  (e)  The  spontaneous  impression  of  every  reader  is,  that  the  two 
witnesses,  whoever  they  might  be,  were  the  friends  of  Christ  and  the 
Christian  cause,  and  that  they  were  endowed  with  the  miraculotis  powers 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XI.  3.  221 

of  the  primitive  tmrliers  ot'  Cliristianity  ;  hut  liow  can  these  prechcntes 
belong  to  tlic  deoiiled  fHemi'e^  of  Christ — tlie  persecuting  Jews  of  lliat  time? 
Anil  how  can  we  assign  to  them  a  trinmph  in  tlieir  resurrection  anil  ascen- 
sion, wliicii  is  ilenietl  even  to  the  early  martyrs?  Comj).  5:  "J — 11.  Finally; 
in  reflecting  upon  this  exegesis  once  quite  popular,  we  caimot  help  the 
feeling  of  sur})rise,  that  it  could  ever  have  heen  brought  forward  and 
patronized  by  such  men  as  Herder  and  Eichliorn.  Its  day,  I  trust,  has 
past ;  but  have  succeeding  times  offered  us  something  better  in  its  stead  ? 
(2)  Recent  commentators  of  distinguished  note  in  Germany  liave  revived 
in  part  the  ancient  exegesis  of  Rev.  11:  .3 — "13,  which  maintained  that 
Moses  and  Elijah,  or  Enoch  and  Elijah,  are  the  two  witnesses  spoken  of  in 
the  passjige  betbre  us. 

So  Bleek  (in  loc.  cit.  supra),  and  so  Evvald  in  his  recent  Commentary. 
The  ground  of  this  interpretation  is,  that  the  Jews  of  ancient  times,  and 
also  the  early  Christians,  expected  that  Christ  would  make  his  appearance 
to  vindicate  the  rights  of  his  kingdom,  preceded  by  the  proj)hets  above 
named,  or  at  least  by  two  of  them.  Elijah  was  considered  as  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  two,  because  3Ial.  4:  5  was  regarded  as  having  expressly  named 
him  ;  and  in  respect  to  the  other,  there  was  a  division  of  opinion,  the 
Jews  in  general  beUeving  the  other  pro|)het  to  be  Moses,  while  some  of 
them  held  to  Enoch.  The  position  of  Hleek  and  Ewalil  of  course  is,  that 
the  writer  of  the  Apocalypse  partook  of  these  alleged  ancient  views;  that 
he  expected  that  Clirist  would  speedily  come  in  i)ersor.  to  destroy  or  sub- 
due all  his  enemies,  and  would  then  commence  bis  new  and  glorious 
terrestrial  reign ;  and  also  that  his  heralds  would  be  Elijah  and  some  other 
distinguished  ancient  prophet.  These  heralds  would  indeed  be  slain  by 
opposing  enemies ;  but  they  would  be  raised  triumphantly  from  the  dead, 
and  then  the  victories  of  the  Messiah  would  become  conspicuous  and  uni- 
versal. 

Of  course,  all  apprehension  that  the  writer  of  the  Apocalypse  was  in- 
spired, or  had  any  correct  knowledge  of  the  future,  is  abandoned  by  such 
a  position  ;  and  indeed  nothing  is  more  manifest,  than  that  both  JJIeek  and 
Ewald,  (and  others  also  who  agree  with  their  views),  do  not  hesitate  at  all 
to  believe,  and  do  virtually  maintain,  that  John  was  in  no  important  respect 
any  more  eidightened  as  to  ihe  future,  than  other  Jewish  Christians  of  the 
times  in  which  he  lived. 

To  contest  the  point  of  John's  inspircilion  with  those  who  adopt  such  an 
exegesis,  would  be  a  task  inapprojuiate  to  a  book  of  Commentary.  But  I 
may  be  permitted,  I  would  hope,  to  suggest  some  doubts  in  respect  to  the 
propriety  of  the  interpretation  before  us,  on  grounds  simply  of  a  historical 
and  critical  nature. 

Heinrichs  (on  Rev.  11:  3)  says:  "That  Moses  and  Elijah  would  return 
from  heaven  to  earth,  and  be  the  precursors  of  the  Messiah,  consluns  erat 
Judaeorum  opinio.'^  To  this  opinion  Bleek  (|».  !270  ut  sup.)  plainly  inclines; 
while  Ewald  seems  undecided  whether  Moses  and  Elijah,  or  Enoch  and 
Elijah,  were  the  specific  witnesses  in  question. 

But  what  is  the  pnwf  of  lh\s  constans  opinio'}  In  3Ial.  4:  5  it  is  said,  that 
'  Elijah  the  prophet  will  come,  before  the  great  day  of  the  Lord.'  That  tlie 
Jews  of  ancient  times  gave  a  literal  interpretation  to  this  |)assage,  seems  to 
be  quite  clear  from  Matt.  17:  10 — 12.  Mark  *J:  11 — 13,  "  Why  say  the  scribea 
that  Elijah  must  first  come  ?"    But  equally  clear  is  it,  also,  from  these  pas- 


222  THE  TWO  WITNESSES :  Chap.  XL  3. 

sages  and  from  Matt.  11:  14,  that  the  Saviour  explicitly  declares  Jolsn  the 
Baptist  to  have  been  the  Elijah  meant  by  the  profihet  Malachi.  Comp. 
Luke  1:  17,  wliich  gives  the  ground  of  this  interpretation,  viz.  'he  (John) 
had  the  s])irit  and  energj'  of  Elijah.' 

How,  now,  I  may  be  permitted  to  ask,  after  declarations  so  explicit  as 
these,  can  we  be  persuaded,  that  the  primitive  Christians  still  continued  to 
believe  in  another  and  a  litercd  coming  of  Elijah  ?  That  John  the  apostle 
was  familiar  with  the  views  of  Christians,  will  not,  I  trust,  be  questioned. 
What  ground  then  is  there,  to  induce  us  to  believe  that  John  expected  a 
literal  coming  of  Elijah  ?  And  what  is  there  in  the  Scriptures,  which  is  a 
good  ground  for  supposing  that  another  prophet  was  then  expected  to  come 
with  him  ?  Perhaps  it  may  be  said  here,  that  John  1:  21  furnishes  some 
ground  for  supposing  that  such  an  opinion  was  current  among  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees.  But  still,  if  o  TtQOCfijjrjg  in  that  passage  should  be  so  con- 
strued, this  exposition  would  not  seem  to  be  favoured  by  most  of  the  early 
Jewish  testimony. 

Pesiqta  Rab.  fol.  G2.  col.  1,  speaks  of  only  Elijah.  Jalkuth  Shimoni,  fol. 
53.  col.  3,  gives  the  same  view :  "  Elijah  will  come  three  days  before  the 
Messiah ;"  quoted  in  Eisenmeng.  Entdeckt.  Jud.  II.  p.  696.  So  the  Tal- 
mud, Tract.  Shabbath,  fol.  1 18.  col.  1 ;  Rabbi  Bechai,  Shulchan  Arba,  fol.  5. 
col.  4 ;  Jalkuth  Shimoni  in  Mai.  fol.  88.  col.  4 ;  each  and  all  repeat  the 
same  sentiment,  Eisenm.  ut  supra  p.  712.  Emek  Hammelekh  repeatedly 
declares  the  same  thing;  quoted  in  Eisenm.  II.  714,  715.  Nothing  is  said 
in  all  these  of  any  more  precursors  than  Elijah,  or  of  any  other  one  but  he. 

But  there  is  still  more  ancient  evidence  than  any  of  this.  In  Sirach  48: 
1 — 9,  is  a  eulogy  of  Elijah  ;  after  which  the  writer  says,  that  'he  will  ap- 
pear to  turn  the  hearts  of  the  fathers  to  the  children,'  etc.  [as  in  Mai.  4:  5, 
6],  and  then  adds :  "  Blessed  are  those  who  shall  see  him,"  viz.  at  the  time 
of  the  Messiah;  vs.  10,  11. 

All  these  opinions  are  plainly  founded  on  a  literal  interpretation  of  Mai. 
4:  5,  and  probably  have  respect  to  Christ's  frst  coming.  In  accordance 
with  these,  but  as  referring  to  Christ's  second  coming,  we  find  the  opinions 
of  Jerome  on  Matt.  17:  12.  Aug.  De  Civ.  Dei,  XX.  29.  Theodoret,  Epit. 
div.  Decret.  c.  23,  quoted  in  Suicer  Thes.  I.  p.  393.  Justin,  Dial,  cum  Tryph. 
p.  226.  Lactantius,  Instt.  Lib.  VII.  All  of  these  Christian  fathers  appear  to 
believe  in  the  reappearance  of  Elijah,  before  Christ's  second  coming  to  de- 
stroy Antichrist. 

We  have  here  then,  as  yet,  but  one  xcitness  named ;  and  all  that  is  said 
respecting  him,  is  evidently  founded  on  the  literal  sense  of  Mai.  4:  5.  The 
difference  of  opinion,  in  the  cases  above  cited,  respects  not  the  number  of 
the  witnesses,  nor  yet  the  person  who  will  appear,  viz.  Elijah,  but  only  the 
point  whether  \\\e  first  or  second  coming  is  the  one  to  which  Malachi  refers. 

Thus  far,  then,  all  seems  to  make  nothing  for  the  ground  assumed  by 
Bleek,  Heinrichs,  and  Ewald.  Still  they  have  some  apparent  ground  to 
build  upon.  Debarim  Rabba,  §  3.  fol.  255.  2,  and  Tanchuma,  fol.  42.  1, 
speak  of  Moses  and  Elijah  as  forerunners  of  the  Messiah;  quoted  in 
Schoettgen,  Hor.  Heb.  in  Matt.  17:  3,  also  in  Vol.  II.  de  Messia,  p.  544.  So 
Targ.  Hierosol.  in  Ex.  x — xii,  quoted  in  Eisenmeng.  Entd.  Jud.  II.  j).  698. 
Hilarius  Pictaviensis  (on  Matt.  17:  3)  expresses  the  same  opinion ;  quoted 
in  Corrodi,  Geschichte  des  Cliiliasmus,  II.  p.  438.  But  this  is  a  small  foun- 
dation to  build  upon,  in  order  to  support  the  opinion  in  question ;  and  even 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES :  Chap.  XI.  3.  223 

if  it  prove  anytliing,  it  is  far  enough  from  proving  tliat  this  opinion  was  ex- 
tant in  the  time  of  Jolin. 

I  may  remark  ht-rt',  that  so  far  as  the  text  in  tlie  Apocalypse  is  concern- 
ed, there  is  a  j)al|»ahle  alliisirm  to  tlie  miraculous  powers  of  Moses  and  Elijah, 
in  Roy.  11:  l».  That  Joiiu  had  his  mind  upon  these  prophets,  is  a  j)oini  al- 
together clear.  Ihit  whetlur  he  merely  horrows  his  dra])ery  from  that 
source,  or  wiielher  he  helieved  and  designed  to  teach  their  veritahlc  reap- 
pearance as  precursors  of  the  Messiah,  are  questions  not  at  all  decided  hy 
an  alhision  to  them.  Tliose  who  helieve  in  John's  inspiration,  or  even  in 
his  correct  views  of  relii'ious  truth,  will  not  he  easily  persuaded  to  helieve, 
that  he  has  taught  the  actual  reappearance  of  tiie  ancient  prophets.  There 
is  nothing  in  the  text,  at  least  as  1  read  and  miderstand  it,  which  should  in- 
duce them  to  believe  this. 

Somewhat  more  support  in  some  respects  has  the  opinion,  that  Enoch 
and  Elijah  were  to  he  the  precursurs  of  the  Messiah,  1  tind  no  satistiictory 
evidence  of  this,  indeed,  in  Jewish  productions ;  hut  the  Christian  lathers 
show,  in  their  writings,  that  such  an  opinion  was  early  and  somewhat 
widely  spread  among  the  Christian  churches,  in  respect  to  the  second  com- 
ing of  Christ,  i.  e.  his  coming  to  destroy  Antichrist.  Antichrist  they  found 
in  the  beast,  who  was  to  come  from  the  bottondess  pit  and  slay  the  two 
witnesses,  as  described  in  Rev.  11:  7.  The  ground  of  their  reasoning  was, 
that  Enoch  and  Elijah,  having  been  translated  without  tasting  of  death, 
would  return  at  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  and  be  slain  by  Antichrist; 
and  so,  at  last,  they  would  undergo  the  conunon  lot  of  all  men.  The  rea- 
son for  coupling  tliese  two  prophets  together,  seems  to  have  been  the  simi- 
larity of  their  history,  and  especially  the  similarity  of  their  exit  from  the 
»world. 

The  reader  may  find  the  subject  so  represented  in  Evang.  Nicodemi, 
Fabr.  Cod.  Apoc.  N.  Test.,  j).  291.  So  in  Tertullian,  de  Anima,  §  50 ;  An- 
dreas, Comin.  in  Apoc.  11:  3,  where  he  expressly  says;  "By  the  two  wit- 
nesses most  of  our  teachers  have  understood  Enoch  and  Elijah,"  etc.  To 
the  same  purpose  Arethas  testifies,  in  his  Comm.  on  Rev.  11:  3.  He  even 
asserts  the  opinion  to  be  a  concorditer  affirmatur.  So,  in  res|>ect  to  the  par- 
ticular pro|)hets  who  were  to  appear,  Damascetnis,  Orth.  F'id.  IV.  c.  29,  in 
Suicer's  Thes.  I.  p.  392.  Hippolytus,  de  Antichristo,  §  43.  p.  20,  ed.  Fabricii. 
Dorotheus  Tyrius,  in  Eiblioth.  Mas.  Patrum,  111.  p.  420.  Ambrosius,  in 
Apoc.  11:  3.  Ephrem,  in  Paraen.  de  Antichristo.  The  appeal  sometimes 
made  to  Iren.  Cont.  Haeres.  IV.  10.  V.  5.  edit.  Massuet,  is  not  at  all  decisive. 

In  respect  now  to  all  this  testimony  from  the  fathers,  it  may  he  truly 
said,  that  it  does  not  reach  the  demands  of  the  case  before  us.  Nothing  is 
more  evident,  than  that  the  views  of  these  fathers  grew  out  of  early  specu- 
lations among  Christians  respecting  Antichrist  and  the  Millennium,  con- 
nected with  difficulties  concerning  the  place  to  which  Elijah  and  Enoch 
had  been  transported.  These  prophets,  according  to  the  views  of  that  lime, 
had  not  been  in  Hades  nt  all;  and  so  the  ancient  fathers  thought  that  they 
could  not  be  raised  from  the  dead;  they  must  therefore,  as  it  seemed  to 
them,  return  to  life  and  undergo  a  real  death  ;  after  which,  they  might  be 
introduced  into  the  heaven  of  the  redeemed.  So,  as  we  may  concede, 
thought  and  reasoned  some  of  the  Christian  fathers ;  hut  among  the  Jews, 
we  find  no  evidence  in  regard  to  such  an  opinion.  We  have  no  evidence 
that  it  existed  at  all  in  the  days  of  John ;  unless  indeed  some  one  may  al- 


224  THE  TWO  WITNESSES :  Chap.  XI.  3. 

lege,  that  the  passage  in  Evang.  Nicodemi  (quoted  above)  renders  it  in  a 
measure  probable.  Yet  we  cannot  attribute  much  weight  to  this  produc- 
tion, because  of  its  fabulous  nature  and  late  origin. 

That  the  Christian  fathers,  even,  were  far  from  being  as  united  in  opinion 
as  Andreas  and  Arethas  intimate,  is  evident  enough,  not  only  from  what 
lias  been  already  quoted  and  referred  to,  but  also  from  the  fact,  that  Enoch, 
Elijah,  and  John  the  Evangelist,  are  united  by  some,  as  the  precursors  of 
the  Messiah  at  his  second  coming.  Thus  Methodius,  as  quoted  in  Suicer 
Thes.  I.  p.  393.  So  too  Hippolytus  (nothus),  in  App.  ad  Opp.  Hippol.  p.  14. 
§  21.  edit.  Fabr.  Also  Ephraem  of  Antioch  (fl.  526),  cited  in  Photius'  Bib. 
Cod.  225,  and  quoted  in  Corrodi,  Gesch.  Chil.  II.  p.  439.  Barradius  (quo- 
ted in  Cal.  Bib.  Illust.  in  Apoc.  11:  3,  p.  1821)  refers  to  Theophylact,  Are- 
thas, Hippolytus,  Damascenus,  and  others,  as  maintaining  this  opinion.  If 
so,  some  of  them  must  have  had  veiy  different  views  at  different  times ; 
for  the  quotations  made  above  of  opinions  entertained  by  some  of  them, 
would  seem  to  prove  something  quite  different  from  this. 

As  a  still  further  variation  of  opinion,  may  be  mentioned  the  views  of 
Victorinus  Pictavionensis,  the  earliest  commentator  we  have  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse. This  writer  (in  Apoc.  11:  3,  Bib.  Max.  Patrum.  III.  p.  418),  says: 
'  Many  suppose  that  Elijah  and  Elisha,  or  Elijah  and  Muses,  are  the  two 
witnesses ;  but  Jeremiah  is  to  be  joined  with  Elijah,  because  no  mention 
is  made  in  Scripture  of  his  death,  and  because  it  was  predicted  that  "  he 
must  be  a  prophet  to  many  nations,"  and  in  order  that  he  should  fulfil  this 
prediction  (which  was  not  done  during  his  former  life),  he  must  rise  fi'om 
the  dead,  be  a  precursor  of  the  Messiah,  and  preach  to  many  nations ;  even 
as  John  says.  Rev.  11:  3 — 13.' 

With  facts  such  as  these  before  us,  now,  we  may  well  ask :  Where  is  the 
constans  Judaeorum  opinio,  about  Moses  and  Elijah,  or  Enoch  and  Elijah  ? 
Or  where  is  to  be  fovuid  any  unity  or  consistency  even  among  the  Chris- 
tian fathers  themselves  .^  We  have,  (1)  Elijah.  (2)  Moses  and  Elijah.  (3) 
Enoch  and  Elijah.  (4)  Enoch,  Elijah,  and  John  the  Evangelist  (see  John 
21:  22).  (5)  Elijah  and  Jeremiah.  The  first  is  an  old  opinion,  founded  on 
a  literal  interpretation  of  Mai.  4:  5,  (which  was  expressly  corrected  by  Jesus 
himself,  3Iatt.  II:  14);  the  second  is  an  opinion  supported  by  a  few  Rab- 
binic writers,  who  for  the  most  part  lived  centuries  after  the  time  of  our 
author ;  for  the  third,  no  Jewish  authors,  and  no  early  Christian  ones  bear 
witness ;  for  the  fourth  and  fifth,  there  is  not  testimony  enough  even  to 
render  them  worthy  of  being  canvassed.  Where  then,  we  may  ask  again, 
is  the  vetits,  and  where  the  constans  opinio  Judaeorum  ? 

Setting  aside  now,  for  the  moment,  the  question  of  John's  inspiration, 
and  supposing  (what  Ewald,  Hicke,  Schott  and  others  assert)  that  the  au- 
thor of  the  Apocalypse  was  not  John  the  apostle,  but  some  disciple  or 
friend  of  John  at  Ephesus,  is  there  any  considerable  probability,  that  the 
representation  of  the  two  witnesses  in  Rev.  11:  3 — 13  is  founded  on  the 
fable,  that  Moses  and  Elijah,  or  Enoch  and  Elijah,  were  to  be  precursoi-s 
of  the  Messiah,  at  his  second  coming  in  order  to  destroy  Antichrist?  I  am 
willing  that  this  question  should  be  decided  by  impartial  critics,  even  on 
the  ground  now  taken,  if  they  choose  it.  After  the  Saviour  himself  had 
dissipated  the  illusion  aljout  the  literal  coming  of  Elijah  (Matt.  11:  14),  I 
cannot  well  see  how  John  the  apostle,  or  any  such  friend  of  his  as  could 
write  the    Apocalypse,  could    indulge    the  reverie  which    Bleek,    Ewald, 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XI.  3.  225 

many  of  the  ancient  futliers,  and  specially  the  Romish  doctors  of  later  ages, 
ascribe  to  him.  Bollariiiiiie,  the  great  Romish  cliampioii,  even  goes  so  far, 
indeed,  at<  to  asoiil»<'  lunsij  to  any  one,  who  denies  the  |);itiistical  opinion 
in  respect  to  this  subject.  By  tliis  he  means,  the  opinion  that  I'liocli  and 
Elijali  win  likrdlli/  come,  and  he  put  to  deatii  by  Anticinist.  But  Beilar- 
mine  makes  too  nnich  haste,  in  this  case,  even  for  tradition  itself. 

We  have  seen  tiiat  nolliing  is  actually  more  wavering  and  discrepant 
tlian  the  patristical  opinions  in  relation  to  this  matter.  Tlie  very  nature  of 
the  case  also  siiows,  that  such  opinions  can  have  no  good  foundation. 
Equally  destitute  of  any  valid  siipjjort,  too,  is  the  opinion  that  Antichrist 
is  found  in  Rev.  11:  7;  unless,  indeed,  a  most  ffcneric  meaning  be  given  to 
this  appellation.  We  are  remitted,  tiierefore,  atler  all  our  wanderings  into 
these  by-paths — arter  our  pursuit  of  mere  conjectincs  and  guesses,  our  ex- 
amination of  the  claims  made  for  Jewisii  higli  j)riests  and  for  prophets  ex- 
pected to  rise  from  the  dead — to  a  further  elfort  in  order  to  elicit  tiom  the 
text  and  context  some  consistent  meaning,  wiiich  will  comport  with  tlie 
idea,  that  the  writer  of  the  Apocalypse  was  neither  an  idle  dreamer,  nor  an 
enthusiastic  visionary.  It  may  l)e  shown  to  be  probable,  that  the  author 
was  not  regardless  either  of  congruity  in  the  plan  of  his  work,  or  of  real 
and  apposite  meaning  in  the  imagery  which  he  introduces. 

What  then  is  apposite ')  And  what  does  the  nature  of  the  case  admit  or 
rc(pfn'e  7 

In  Rev.  G:  11  the  martyrs  supplicating  for  retribution  upon  the  enemies 
and  persecutors  of  the  church  are  told,  that  thty  must  wait  for  a  while,  un- 
til the  number  of  martyrs  becomes  augmented,  and  the  iniquitij  of  their  persecu- 
tors coims  to  its  full  completion.  Against  the  judgments  of  heaven  wiiich 
are  to  overtake  the  latter,  Christians  in  general  are  secured  by  the  seal  of 
God  impressed  upon  their  foreheads,  ch.  vii.  Here,  in  ch.  xi.  which  brings 
us  to  the  close  of  the  first  cadistrophe,  we  have  a  picture  of  the  renewed 
and  bitter  efforts  of  the  enemies  of  the  church  to  destroy  it,  even  at  the 
period  when  destruction  was  impending  over  themselves.  In  this  way  the 
reader  is  prepared  to  acquiesce  in  the  doom  which  awaits  them,  on  the 
sounding  of  the  seventh  and  last  trumpet. 

Nor  is  this  all.  The  long  suffering  of  God  is  thus  displayed  towards  his 
once  beloved  people.  They  are  exhorted  to  repentance  while  destruction 
is  impending,  in  order  that  they  may  escape.  Prophets  furnished  with  mi- 
raculous powers,  like  those  of  Moses  and  Elijah,  so  as  to  give  full  proof  of 
their  divine  mission,  are  sent  to  them.  But  tliey  will  not  hear.  When  the 
time  fixed  by  heaven  for  their  probation  is  past,  tliose  prophets  are  given 
up  to  the  persecuting  fury  of  their  enemies,  and  they  fall  a  sacrifice.  Yet 
the  cause  which  they  advocated  is  not  rendered  hopeless  by  this.  It  is  not 
even  weakened ;  for  the  martyrs  are  raised  from  the  dead,  and  ascend  in 
triumph  to  heaven.  In  other  words  :  "  The  blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed 
of  the  church ;"  for  the  church  becomes  victorious  by  the  deadly  assaults 
made  upon  it.  The  enemies  of  religion  may  indeed  bring  upon  themselves 
swift  destruction,  by  their  malignity;  they  do  so;  but  the  church  will  rise 
and  trium|)li,  and  enjoy  continued  divine  [trotection  and  favour,  amid  all 
the  trials  to  which  it  can  be  sui)jected. 

That  liltrally  two,  and  only  two,  witnesses  were  to  appear  in  these  times 
of  peculiar  wickedness;  that  they  were  to  be  literalbf  raised  from  tlie  dead, 
and  to  ascend  to  heaven,  etc. ;  we  need  not  strive  to  disprove,  in  connnent- 

voL.  II,  29 


226  THE  TWO  AviTNESSES  :  Chap.  XL  3. 

ing  on  such  a  book  as  the  Apocalypse.  In  all  cases  great  allowance  is  of 
course  to  be  made  ibr  symbol  and  costume.  Still,  it  is  also  a  matter  of 
course  that  there  shoidd  be  some/«d5  at  the  basis;  and  here  these  facts 
are,  that  God  would  raise  up  faithful  and  Avell  endowed  preachers  among 
the  .Tews,  at  the  period  when  the  nation  were  ready  to  perish  ;  that  those 
preachers  would  be  persecuted  and  destroyed ;  and  after  all,  that  the 
Christian  cause  would  still  be  triumjthant.  If  we  go  beyond  this  in  literal 
interpretation,  we  are  at  once  merged  into  abysses  from  which  there  is  no 
escape;  for  how  could  all  "the  inhabitants  of  the  earth"  literally  obtain  the 
news  of  the  death  of  the  witnesses  in  three  and  a  half  days,  and  send  pres- 
ents to  each  other,  and  come  to  Jerusalem  and  exult  over  their  dead  bodies, 
within  the  same  period  of  time?  vs.  9,  10.  But  enough — for  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  make  ont  a  literal  exegesis  on  any  ground  whatever,  except  that  of 
absolute  absurdity. 

One  question  remains,  on  the  ground  now  assumed.  Why  tivo  witnes- 
ses.^ Because,  in  the  first  place,  two  are  a  competent  number  to  establish 
any  matter ;  see  Dent.  17:  6.  19:  15.  Num.  35:  30.  John  5:  30—33.  Matt. 
18:  16.  But  I  would  not  say,  that  this  is  all  which  need  be  supposed  in  the 
present  case;  for  the  mission  of  the  seventy  disciples  in  pairs,  Luke  10:  1 ; 
the  appearance  of  cons{)icuous  prophets  and  personages  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Jewish  political  and  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  for  their  reforma- 
tion, (such  for  example  as  Moses  and  Aaron,  Elijali  and  Elisha,  Zerubbabel 
and  Joshua),  seenjs  plainly  to  jjoint  to  a  basis  on  which  we  can  build  in 
part  the  explanation  of  the  number  two  in  this  case.  The  meaning  is,  that 
a  competent  nund)er  of  divinely  commissioned  and  faithful  Christian  Avitnes- 
ses,  endowed  with  miraculous  jjowers,  sliould  bear  testimony  against  the 
corrupt  Jews,  during  the  last  days  of  their  Commonwealth,  respecting  their 
sins  ;  that  they  should  proclaim  the  truths  of  the  Gospel ;  and  that  the 
Jews,  by  destroying  them,  would  bring  upon  themselves  an  aggravated  and 
an  awful  doom.  All  beyond  this  is  mere  costume  or  symbol ;  and  this,  em- 
ployed in  like  manner  as  we  find  symbols  employed  in  every  other  part  of 
the  Apocalypse. 

But  an  earnest  inquirer  may  perhaps  be  disposed  to  go  still  further  in  his 
inquiries,  and  ask  :  'How  much  of  all  that  is  now  supposed  to  be  predicted 
here,  actually  liapi)ened  during  the  invasion  of  Judea  by  the  Romans  .^' 

This  question,  however,  we  have  not  the  adequate  means  of  fully  an- 
swering simply  by  historical  documents.  Josephus  is  not  the  historian  of 
Christians.  He  touches  indeed,  in  a  short  paragraph,  upon  John  the  Bap- 
tist, on  James  tlie  brother  of  Jesus,  and  perhaps  upon  the  history  of  Jesus 
himself;  but  he  was  too  much  involved  in  Jewish  prejudices  and  civil  con- 
cerns, to  inquire  after  matters  of  Christian  history.  Tacitus  of  course  gives 
us  nothing  but  political  and  civil  history.  He  is  brief,  full  of  fiction  and 
pi'ejudice  in  respect  to  the  opinions  of  the  Jews,  but  graphic  as  to  some 
events  of  the  Jewish  war.  The  N.  Testament  history  of  the  church  does 
not  cover  the  ground  under  examination.  Early  ecclesiastical  histories, 
such  as  that  of  Hegesipi)us  and  others,  have  perished.  But  still,  we  have 
an  authority  of  the  most  decisive  nature  remaining.  It  is  the  Saviour  him- 
self, who,  in  his  prophecy  respecting  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  has 
plainly  foretold  the  persecution  of  Christians,  at  the  period  in  question  ; 
see  Matt.  24:  9—13.  Mark  13:  9—13.  Luke  21:  12—16.  Perfectly  re- 
concilable with  the  fulfilment  of  this  prediction   we   may  suppose  it  to  be, 


TIIF.  TWO  WITNESSES  :    ClIAP.    XI.  3.  227 

lliat,  acoordiiis:  to  tlio  testimony  of  tlie  ancici)t.s,  tlie  great  l)nfly  of  Cliris- 
tiaiis  ileil  hoyond  tlic  Jordan  to  Pella,  when  Palestine  was  invailed  l»y  tlio 
Rotnan.^.  Tliat  Jndea  eoidd  suceessfidly  resist  the  Roman  power,  no  con- 
siderate person  wonid  Iteheve.  Hence  tlie  flijrht  of  Christians,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  Avarninirs  of  the  Savionr.  But  still,  the  case  can  hardly  be 
imagined,  where  all  wmild  hv.  ahle  to  make  jjood  their  escn])e.  The  sick, 
the  aired,  paupers,  persons  of  a  hesitatinjf  or  doiihtiiifr  tin-n  of  mind,  must, 
or  at  least  would,  (lelay,  or  ffive  npan  elfort  to  tl}'.  Tiien,  among  the  laith- 
ful  and  zealous  teachers  of  Christianity  in  Palestine,  there  must  have  been 
those  who  chose  to  remain,  and  preach  rejjcntance  and  faith  to  their  i)erish- 
ing  countrymen.  These  I  regard  as  being  synd)oIized  by  the  two  witnesses 
in  11:3.  That  they  are  endowed  with  miraculous  powers,  is  surely  no 
matter  of  just  otience  to  the  Christian  critic,  considering  the  period  in 
which  they  lived.  It  is  by  the  i)resentation  of  their  lofly  character  and  en- 
dowments, and  their  subsequent  martyrdom,  that  the  Apocalyptist  has  so 
exceedingly  heightened  the  picture  of  Jewish  guilt.  One  cannot  find  it  in 
his  heart  to  deny,  that  the  time  for  sounding  the  last  woe-truini)ct  had  at 
length  I'tilly  come. 

At  all  events,  it  is  clear  that  the  Zealots  and  other  Jews  did  not  lose 
their  disjiosition  to  persecute  at  this  })eriod.  And  well  may  we  suppose 
that  Christians,  when  they  urged  the  declarations  of  the  Saviour  as  to  the 
impending  fate  of  Jerusalem,  would  I)e  taken  oti'by  the  Zealots,  on  grounds 
of  i)ohtical  jealousy,  if  not  on  other  grounds  ;  for  all  w  ho  manifested  a 
sense  of  a])proaching  danger,  or  made  an  effort  to  restore  peace,  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  Zealots.  But  to  destroy  the  Christian  religion,  or  even  to 
arrest  its  final  trimnphs,  was  not  in  t^ie  power  of  the  Jews  or  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Truth  achieved  its  victories  tiien  ;  it  was  destined  to  achieve  still 
greater  triumphs. 

Wetstein,  who  has  not  unfreqiiently  been  represented  as  of  the  same 
ojiinion  in  respect  to  the  two  witnesses  as  Herder  and  Eichhorn  (see  p.  2*^0 
above),  has  in  fact  given  a  very  different  view.  He  says  (p.  890  of  Vol.  II.), 
that  the  two  witnesses  "  were  prophets  in  the  church,  j)re(licting  the  de- 
struction of  the  temple  and  the  Jewish  commonwealth."  Danbuz  (Comm. 
on  Apoc),  and  Lownian  (on  the  Rev.),  exi)re.ss  an  ojjinion  sub.stantially  of 
the  same  tenor  with  that  which  I  have  endeavored  to  defend,  although  they 
enter  into  little  or  no  discussion  respecting  the  merits  of  the  case.  Zege- 
rus  seems  to  have  had  some  views  of  the  like  nature. 


The  verbal  criticism  of  the  passage  before  us  may  now  be  resumed, 
z/w'rfco  needs  a  direct  complement.  What  is  to  be  given  ?  The  an- 
swer might  be  nQorfijnluv,  i.  e.  the  gift  of  prophecy,  or  the  power  of 
prophesying^  as  this  word  means  in  1  Cor.  12:  10,  13:  2,  8.  14:  22 ;  for 
such  a  sup[)lement  might  be  naturally  implied,  in  accordance  with  the 
clause  that  follows.  Or  we  may  solve  the  form  of  expression  here  (viz. 
the  Fut.  immediately  after  dojaw)  by  the  Hebrew  idiom,  which  not  un- 
frecjuently  connect.s  a  verb  with  '{r: ,  when  the  latter  makes  that  verb 
a  part  of  its  complement ;  e.  g.  Ezek.  37:  26,  '^n"<3'nnT  n'^nrjii ,  comp. 
Jer.  9:  1.   Ps.  bb:  6,  which  however  have  only  an  indirect  bearing  on 


228  THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XI.  4. 

this  case.  So  after  daoa  and  ttoieT,  the  particle  'iva  with  a  Subj.  verb 
is  employed  in  the  like  way  as  the  Fut.  here ;  comp.  Rev.  3:  9.  13:  12, 
16. — nQocfijTtvaovaiv  is  not  limited  to  predicting,  but  often  means,  in 
the  N.  Testament  as  well  as  the  Old,  any  and  every  kind  of  preaching 
by  special  divine  aid. 

Twelve  hundred  and  sixty  days.  There  have  not  been  wanting 
critics  who  have  interpreted  these  as  having  respect  to  a  period  either 
preceding  or  following  the  forty-two  months  of  the  preceding  verse. 
So  Lactantius  Instt.  VII.  17,  Andreas  (Comm.),  Hippolytus  (Comm. 
on  Dan.  9:  27,  edit.  Fabi'ic.  p.  272),  and  others,  who  place  the  coming 
of  the  witnesses  before  the  coming  of  Antichrist  to  tread  down  the  holy 
city.  But  it  is  so  evident  (since  both  periods  named  are  of  the  same 
length)  that  the  writer  regards  them  as  contemporaneous,  that  any 
effort  to  establish  this  position  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary.  The 
meaning  therefore  is,  that  during  the  time  in  which  the  Gentiles  are 
engaged  in  laying  waste  the  holy  land  and  city,  the  witnesses  will  per- 
form their  duty,  and  will  become  martyrs  near  the  close  of  this  period. 
As  to  the  period  itself,  see  on  v.  2  above,  and  also  Exc.  V.  on  the 
Times  designated  in  the  Apocalypse. 

neQi^£^Xt][j.svoi  adxxovg,  the  usual  emblem  of  moui'ning  and  distress ; 
but  sometimes  a  designation  of  the  projjhetic  costume,  see  Matt.  3:  4. 
Is.  20:  2.  Zech.  13:  4.  Probably  the  meaning  here  is  the  latter  one. 
Still,  if  there  be  united  with  this  meaning  the  emblem  of  a  mournful 
state  of  the  country  and  nation,  the  description  is  the  more  significant. 
The  participle  in  this  clause,  which  is  in  the  Norn.,  accords  with  the 
implied  Nom.  to  TrQoqifjtevaovaiv. 

(4)  These  are  the  two  olive-trees,  and  the  two  lamps,  which  stand  before  the 
Lord  of  the  earth. 

Does  not  the  writer  plainly  show  here  that  he  had  no  such  intention 
as  literally  to  designate  the  prophets  Moses  and  Elijah,  or  Enoch  and 
Elijah  ?  These  are  {ovznl  eiaiv)  means,  these  correspond  to,  or  these  are 
represe?ited  by,  the  two  olive  trees  and  the  two  lights,  etc.,  i.  e.  those 
mentioned  in  Zech.  iv.  There  the  prophet  sees  a  golden  lamp  with 
seven  branches  (vs.  1,  2),  and  two  olive  trees  standing  by  it,  emptying 
their  oil  into  it  by  ducts  from  the  tree  to  the  lamp  (vs.  11 — 13).  These 
the  angel-interpreter  declares  to  be  symbols  of  the  two  anointed  ones 
[Joshua  and  Zerubbabel],  who  stand  before  the  Lord  of  the  whole  earth 
(v.  14).  In  like  manner,  as  to  our  text;  the  two  witnesses  whose 
office  it  is  to  build  up  the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  establish  it  on  a  firm 
foundation,  may  be  aptly  compared,  as  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel  the 
founders  of  the  renewed  Jewish  Commonwealth  were,  to  the  two  olive- 
trees  perpetually  fresh  and  vigorous,  and  the  lights  which  their  oil  con- 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XL  5.  229 

tiniially  fed.  In  Zechariah,  indeed,  we  have  but  one  lamp  with  seven 
branches  or  lights ;  but  here  the  author  has  mentioned  (wo  lamps  only, 
and  not  any  branches.  This  variation,  however,  is  of  no  real  moment 
as  to  the  signifieancy  of  the  passage ;  but  still  it  shows  the  freedom 
which  the  autlior  of  the  Apocalypse  used  in  respect  to  his  sources, 
never  confining  himself  to  an  exact  repetition  or  imitation  of  them. 
The  meaning  of  the  whole  seems  plainly  to  be,  that  as  Joshua  and 
Zerubbabel  were  employed  in  building  up  and  establishing  the  ancient 
temple  and  church,  so,  under  the  new  dispensation,  faithful  leaders  and 
teachers  are  enn>loyed  in  building  up  the  new  and  spiritual  common- 
wealth of  Christianity.  The  nature  of  the  comparison  here  is  a  good 
reason,  moreover,  why  the  author  should  designate  but  two  witnesses  ^ 
rather  than  any  other  number.  The  two  olive  trees,  and  the  two  Jew- 
ish leaders,  of  course  demand  a  corresponding  tivo  under  the  new  dis- 
pensation. 

yii  ivwmov  .  .  .  iazMteg.     So  Mill,  Knapp,  Grfesbach,  Lachmann, 
Matthaei,  Vater,  Tittmann,  and  Hahn.     But  AYetstein  has  earMcjui,  und 

7  1  '» 

Ewald  approves  this  reading.  In  favour  of  sazMTeg  are  A.  C.  and 
some  twenty  Codices.  Those  critics  who  decide  in  favour  of  the  genu- 
ineness of  a  reading,  because  it  is  internally  improbable,  or  inconsistent 
with  the  laws  of  grammar,  will  of  course  be  disposed  to  adopt  the 
anomalous  ccl  .  .  .  eazcoreg,  i.  e.  a  fern,  article  and  a  masc.  participle. 
But  I  know  of  no  like  instance,  in  respect  to  the  article,  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse, or  in  the  N.  Testament ;  although  there  are  cases  where  a  gen- 
der of  nouns  different  from  the  more  usual  one  is  employed,  but  which 
still  may  be  common  gender  by  popular  usage.  I  do  not  think  the  au- 
thority adequate,  in  this  case,  to  sanction  so  improliable  a  reading  as 
a'l  .  .  .  taztaztg.  Yet  if  it  be  admitted,  it  is  capable  of  explanation. 
In  its  gender  «t  conforms  to  its  antecedents  iXatai  and  Xv^viai,  while 
the  Part,  iazwreg  is  a  constructio  ad  sensum,  because  the  witnesses 
(masc.)  are  designated  by  it.  Comp.  Xen.  Mem.  II.  2.  3,  «/  nolag 
.  .  .  Xf'yofTsg.  Aristid.  I.  p.  2G7 — noXecov,  ■Aalovvroiv  ri  (og  avrovg. 
Many  other  cases  of  the  like  nature,  even  in  the  Classics,  any  good 
Greek  grammar  will  supply.  As  to  the  meaning  of  the  whole  clause, 
it  is  evidently  intended  to  designate  the  honourable  station  of  the  wit- 
nesses, and  the  office  (of  which  they  discharge  the  duties)  as  being  of 
divine  appointment.  In  other  words ;  being  represented  as  standing 
hefore  the  Lord,  they  are  of  course  presented  to  us  as  the  ministers  of 
the  divine  will,  admitted  to  the  special  presence,  care,  and  coniidence 
of  the  Saviour. 

(5)  And  if  any  one  will  do  them  harm,  fire  issucth  out  of  their  mouth,  and  de- 
voureth  their  enemies;  yea,  if  any  one  will  do  them  harm,  in  like  manner  he 
muBt  be  destroyed. 


230  THE  TWO  witnesses:  Chap.  XL  6. 

EiTig  .  .  .  &eXei,  Text.  Recept.  O-tXri ;  both  readings  have  been  taxed 
with  being  bad  Greek,  in  a  hypothetical  sentence  of  the  natuie  here 
presented,  because  the  Opt.  with  £t,  it  is  said,  is  the  usual  form  for  ex- 
pressions of  this  nature.  But  this  is  the  fact  only  when  a  case  is  merely 
supposed,  or  conjectured  ;  on  the  contrary,  when  the  speaker  designs  to 
state  a  thing  which  he  believes  will  certainly  happen,  he  uses  the  Indie, 
with  fit;  see  Gramm.  §  157.  1,  and  Winer,  §  42.  b.  2.  a. 

rivQ  I'AnoQkVETai  -A.  r.  A,  i.  e.  they  are  furnished  with  a  power  of 
resisting  and  destroying  their  enemies,  like  to  that  which  Elijah  posses- 
sed, comp.  2  Kings  1:  10 — 14.  Luke  9:  54.  But  here  there  is  a  shade 
of  difference,  as  usual,  in  our  author.  Elijah  commanded  the  fire  to 
descend  fro77i  heaven  ;  the  witnesses  breathe  it  from  their  own  mouth. 
But  is  this  to  be  understood  literally  of  fire  actually  breathed  out,  or 
tropically  of  words  which  like  a  burning  fire  would  wither  and  consume  ? 
In  4  Ezra  13:  4,  10,  27  (ut  spiritum  et  ignem),  the  same  image  is  em- 
ployed in  a  kind  of  half  literal  and  half  figurative  manner,  so  that  it 
is  diflScult  to  discern  exactly  what  the  meaning  of  the  writer  is.  In 
Enoch  61:  4  it  is  said:  "  The  word  of  his  mouth  [of  the  elect  One] 
shall  destroy  all  the  sinners ;"  probably  by  rebuke  or  condemnation. 
In  E-cv.  1:  16  a  sivord  is  said  to  issue  from  the  mouth  of  the  Saviour, 
as  a  symbol  of  destruction  to  enemies.  The  passage  before  us  might 
be  interpreted  in  reference  to  severe  and  indignant  rebuke  by  the  two 
prophets  or  witnesses;  but  if  we  compare  Rev.  9:  17,  18,,  it  seems 
more  probable,  that  the  author  had  before  his  mind  the  image  of  flam- 
ing fire  breathed  forth  so  as  to  destroy ;  comp.  Ps.  18:  8  (9).  This 
seems  to  be  rather  confirmed  by  the  verb  xazeGd^t'ei,  wholly  consumes  or 
destroys.  The  Pres.  tense  here  represents  the  whole  scene  as  passing 
before  the  mental  vision  of  the  prophet. 

This  sentiment  the  author  virtually  repeats  in  the  sequel  of  the  verse, 
so  as  to  render  it  the  more  intensive.  I  have  rendered  xat  in  accor- 
dance with  this  design,  in  the  version. — Ovrco,  i.  e.  in  this  very  man- 
ner, viz.  with  destruction  by  fire,  must  every  one  who  harms  them  be 
cut  off. — Jci,  must,  i.  e.  such  is  the  appointment  of  heaven,  and  it  will 
take  place. 

(6)  The  same  have  power  to  shut  up  the  heaven,  that  the  rain  shall  not  fall 
during  the  days  of  their  prophecy  ;  and  they  have  power  over  the  waters,  to  turn 
them  into  blood,  and  to  smite  the  earth  by  every  kind  of  plague,  so  often  as  they 
may  desire. 

KXeXaai  rov  ovQavov  refers  to  the  ancient  opinion,  that  the  rain  was 
kept  in  reservoirs  above,  and  descended  through  apertures  in  the  firma- 
ment; Gen.  1:  7.  7:  11.  8:  2.  2  K.  7:  2.  To  shut  or  close  up  the  hea- 
ven, is  of  course  to  stop  or  restrain  the  rain  from  descending,  and  thus  to 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XL  7.  231 

bring  on  drought  or  famine;  comp.  James  5:  17.  1  K.  17:  1.  Sirach, 
48:  2,  3.  In  other  words  :  Tlie  two  witnesses  were  to  be  furnished  with 
miraculous  powers,  like  to  those  of  Elijah. 

Nor  do  the  miraculous  powers  of  Elijah  alone  afford  full  scope  for 
comparison.  The  two  witnesses  are  even  to  be  endowed  as  Moses  him- 
self was,  the  great  head  of  the  ancient  dispensation. — '/'^iovaiav  i'j^ovoip 
fTTi . . .  i»V  aiiia,  i.  e.  they  can  smite  the  streams  and  turn  them  into  blood, 
as  Moses  did  the  Nile  of  old,  Ex.  7:  17  seq.  Comp.  Rev.  8:  8  above. — 
2.'TQtq:eiv  avra  ti\'  ai^ta  is  an  epexegetical  clause,  inserted  in  order  to 
explain  tiovaiav  tni  tmv  vSutmv.  These  two  references  to  Moses  and 
Elijah  show  plainly,  that  if  a  literal  sense  must  be  given  to  the  pas- 
sage, they  are  the  persons  whom  the  writer  has  in  mind. 

Hutd'iai  .  .  .  7T).i;yfi,  to  smite  is  to  be  tropically  understood,  and  means 
to  chastise,  to  punish. — '/•>  nd<7rj  nlijyii,  viz.  with  every  kind  of  plague, 
even  such  as  Moses  iiiflicted  on  the  Egyptians.  And  all  this — oad/.ig 
idr  OtXijacoat,  so  often  as  they  may  choose.  The  idv  in  this  case  stands 
for  dv  and  merely  gives  a  generic  conditionality  to  the  clause  ;  see  Rob. 
Lex.  fdv,  No.  4.  This  particular  use  of  idv  for  ui\  belongs  to  the  later 
Greek.     As  employed  liere,  it  requires  the  Subj.  mode  after  it. 

(7)  And  wlicncvor  tlioy  shall  liave  finislu'd  their  testimony,  the  beast  which  as- 
cendeth  from  the  bottomless  pit  will  make  war  with  them,  and  overcome  them 
and  slay  them. 

It  is  the  Saviour  who  is  speaking  (see  v.  3,  nov)  ;  and  in  the  preced- 
ing description  of  the  two  witnesses,  the  Pres.  tense  is  employed.  The 
transition  here  to  a  future  conditional  (Aor.  Subj.)  is  of  course  in  its 
proper  place,  when  an  event  yet  to  come  is  spoken  of.  So  through  the 
verse — rtXiacoai.,  and  then  the  Fut.  noiyoH .  .  .  viy.)]aH  .  .  .  uTzo'/.tevai. 
This  state  of  things  being  introduced,  the  writer  then  resumes  the  Pres. 
tense  again  in  the  narration,  intermixed  with  futures,  v.  9,  10.  Changes 
of  such  a  nature  are  frequent  in  this  book,  and  indeed  in  all  parts  of  the 
N.  Testament.  When  the  Aor.  Subj.  (as  here  nltacaai)  is  preceded 
by  oTur  it  designates  the  Fut.  exactum  ;  and  so  I  have  translated  it. 
See  KiJhner's  Gramm.  §  807.  2.   Comp.  Mark  8:  38.  John  4:  2.3. 

7'o  {>i,oiov  .  .  .  u^ii'dcjnv.  But  who  or  what  is  this  beast?  That  the 
answer  to  this  question  wjxs  easy,  and  well  known  to  the  readers  of  John's 
day,  seems  to  be  intimated,  of  course,  by  the  article  to  prefixed.  But 
the  question  has  been  very  variously  answered,  in  later  times.*     For 


*  The  ancient  commentators,  Victorinus,  Andreas,  and  Arethas,  all  declare 
fur  .intichrist.  But  wlio  Antichrist  is,  or  will  be,  they  have  not  told  us.  Tliose 
Chri.'Jlian  fathers  in  general  seem  to  have  declared  for  Jhiliclirist  liere,  who  be- 
lieved that  Enoch  and  Elijah,  or  Moses  and  Elijah,  were  to  be  recalled  from  the 
other  world,  and  to  precede  the  coming  of  Christ  in  order  to  destroy  A nticlirist. 
In  later  times,  moat  interpreters  have  passed  by  this  clause  of  v.  7  in  silence  ;  aa 


232  THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :   ChAp.  XL  7. 

myself,  I  must  conclude,  and  this  for  reasons  which  are  given  below 
in  the  Note,  that  the  meaning  of  our  text  is  simply  this:  'Satan, 


is  quite  too  common  with  respect  to  the  difficult  passages  of  the  Apocalypse.  Ze- 
gerus  says,  that  &rjQiov  is  the  devil  or  antichrist.  Grotius  and  Hammond  represent 
it  as  meaning  the  famous  impostor  Barchochab,  in  the  time  of  Adrian,  who  perse- 
cuted Christians.  Eichhorn  says,  that  d^jgiov  is  generic,  and  is  put  for  &riQia  ; 
and  also  that  &7]Qia  means  the  locusts  mentioned  in  chap.  9:  2  seq.  Heinrichs 
says,  that  it  means  the  leader  of  tlie  locusts,  viz.  Apollyon,  9:  11.  Lange  thinks 
it  means  tiie  dragon  ;     see  Rev.  13:  2  seq. 

That  Antichrist  (in  a  o-e«er«c  sense)  is   designated  by  ■9'7/(i<W,  is  true  enough ; 
for  plainly  the  beast  is  hostile  to  Christians.     But  as  to  any  specific  individuality 
in  this  case,  unless  Satan  himself  or  the  dragon  be  meant,  it  would  be  difficult  in- 
deed to  make  out  a  probability.     When  John  introduces  o  S^dxojv  in  12:  3,  4  seq. 
13:  2,  4.  16:  13,  20.  20:  2,  he  takes  it  for  granted  that  his  readers  will  know  who 
is  meant,  either  in  consequence  of  the  predicates  assigned   to  him,  or  else  in  con- 
sequence of  the  appellation  as  being  applied  by  common  usage  to   Satan,  the  old 
serpent  who  beguiled  Eve,  2  Cor.  11:  3.     So  here,  ro  ■O'tjqiov  is  said  to  ascend  from 
the  abyss  ;  and  who  is  it  that  dwells  in  the  abyss,  and  is  an  enemy  to  Christians, 
and  can  come  forth  from  that  place  to  oppose  them  .'     Who  but  Satan  or  the  Dra- 
gon ?     Ewald  says,  it  means  Nero.,  who  was  looked  upon  as  Antichrist.     But  the 
Romish  monster  or  beast,  who  persecutes  the  church,  comes  up  from  the  sea  (ch. 
13:  1),  not  from  the  bottomless  pit.     Ewald,  however,  in  order  to  avoid  the  force 
of  this,  says  that  cinP  often  means  the  sea,  and  is  also  frequently  rendered  a3vG- 
aog,  in  the  Septuagint;  and  that  here  the  word  a^vaaog  may  mean   the  same  as 
■d'dlaaaa  in  Rev.  13:  1,  i.  e.  Oicus  or  ViiW  is  meant  in  both,  and  so  also  in  17;  8. 
So  much  indeed  is  true,  viz.,  that  in  17:  8  the  /?07/),ts/t  beast  is  represented  as  com- 
ine;  f§  d^vaaov;  and  such  might  be  the  sentiment  here,  if  the  reader  had  been  at 
all  prepared  to  refer  d'tjQiov  to  a  Romish  persecuting   power.     But  no  such  prepa- 
ration has  been  made  here;  whereas  in  respect  to  17:  8  the  preparation   is  amply 
made,  beginning  with  13:  1  and  continuing  down  to  17:  8,  so  that  the  reader  may 
easily  understand  who  is  meant.     But  here  to  d'tj^ioy  tn  rt^g  djivoaov  comes  upon 
us  unexpectedly  ;  since  nothing  has  yet  been  said  of  the   Romans  as  persecutors 
of  Christians.     The  beast  who  is  to  slay  the  witnesses,  develops  himself  and  exer- 
cises his  power  in  Jerusalem  or  the  holy  city.     This  is  the  city  which  is  to  be  trod- 
den under  foot,  whose  inhabitants  are  warned  by  the  two  witnesses,  and  who  have 
become  enraged  by  reason  of  the  rebukes  of  these  witnesses.     How  comes   Nero, 
already  making  war   against  this  city,  to  be   represented  as  being  in  the  midst  of 
it,  and  there  joining  as  an  associate  with  his  bitter  enemies  the   Jews,  in   slaying 
the  witnesses  who  had  opposed  the  latter.''     There  is   too  much  of  incongruity  in 
such  an  interpretation.     Is  it  not  more  easy  and  natural  to  suppose  that  Satan  is 
here  meant,  wjiose  influence  on  the  persecutors  in  the   holy  city  is  just  the  same 
as  that  of  the  dragon  {==  &7]Qiov  here),  in  chap.  13:  2  seq,  upon  the  heathen  persecu- 
tors of  Christianity.'     There   certainly  is  no  necessity  for  supposing  that  ■d'i]QiOV 
means  the  same  identical    monster  here  as  in  chap.  xiii.  xvii,  i.  e.  the  Romish  per- 
secuting power  ;  for  neither  the  origin  nor  the  attributes  of  the  two  beasts  are  the 
same.      Merely  because  the  beast  in  11:  7  is  said  to  ascend  from  the  abyss,  and  the 
[Romish]  beast  in  17:  8  is  represented  as  coming  from  the  same  place,  we  must  not 
conclude  that  both  beasts  are  the  same,  or  are  symbols  of  one  and  the  same  thing  or 
person.     The  locusts  and  Abaddon  who  leads  them  on  (chap,  ix.)  both  come  from 
the  pit;  yet  surely  they  are  not  one  and  the  same.     Besides,  in  Rev.  17:  8,  the  as- 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES :  Chap.  XL  7.  233 

who  comes  from  the  bottomless  pit,  will  stir  up  the  enmity  of  those  who 
hate  and  fear  the  witnesses,  and  urge  them  on  to  yiersecution  and  to 
blood.'  It  need  not  be  proved,  that  a  beast  is  a  familiar  symbol  for  any 
noxious,  powerful,  and  dangerous  enemy. 

A'/x/;(Tff  avTov^  x.  r.  X.  What  is  done  by  Satan's  agency,  is  attribu- 
ted to  him ;  as  is  often  the  case  throughout  the  Scriptures,  in  similar 
cases. 

But  how  comes  it  that  these  witnesses,  furnished  as  they  are  with 
miraculous  powers  to  defend  themselves,  are  overcome  by  the  beast  in 
this  case,  and  finally  perish?  This  question  might  be  partly  answered 
by  asking  another :  How  came  Paul,  and  Peter,  and  other  apostles, 
who  were  protected  and  kept  in  perfect  safety  for  a  time,  at  last  to  fall 
before  the  power  of  persecution  ?  How  came  Jesus,  who  could  pray  to 
his  Father,  and  he  would  send  him  twelve  legions  of  angels  (Matt.  26: 
53),  still  to  sutler  himself  to  be  apprehended  and  crucified?  Because, 
I  answer,  it  was  known  and  believed  by  them,  when  the  time  tor  their 
death  respectively  came,  that  such  was  the  will  of  God ;  and  therefore 


cent  from  the  pit  designates  not  the  origin  of  the  beast  (see  in  vs.  3,  7),  but  only 
the  place  from  which  lie  rises,  after  he  has  been  destroyed,  (v.  8,  ■^y,  yaiovx  iart). 
For  his  place  of  origin,  see  13:  J.  All  evil,  or  instruments  of  evil,  occasioned  or 
controlled  by  Satan,  may  be  aptly  represented  in  a  poetic  way  as  coming  from  the 
(ihijss,  and  they  are  sometimes  so  represented.  The  Saviour  even  says  of  the  ma- 
lignant Jews:  "Ye  are  from  benealli,  I  am  from  above;"  and  in  connection  with 
this  he  says:  "Ye  are  of  your  father,  the  devil,"  John  8:  23,  44.  There  is  then 
no  good  reason  to  say,  that,  because  the  beast  (Rev.  17:  8)  comes,  i.  e.  returns  to 
life,  from  the  abyss,  and  symbolizes  (allowing  this  interpretation)  the  Human  jYe- 
ro,  therefore  the  beast  in  the  text  before  us  is  the  same.  The  predicates  of  both 
must  be  such,  that  we  can  with  propriety  and  congruity  suppose  them  to  be  the 
same  agent,  in  order  to  justify  such  an  interpretation.  But  we  have  seen  that 
such  is  710/  the  case,  in  the  present  instance.  And  in  fact,  even  if  some  of  the  at- 
tributes symbolically  described  were  the  same  in  both  cases,  it  would  not  prove  a 
sameness  of  the  agents;  for  the  beast  or  dragon  in  Apoc.  12:  3,  with  seven  heads 
and  ten  horns,  is  an  entirely  different  beast  from  that  in  13:  3,  which  has  the 
same  number  of  heads  and  horns.  The  question  rests  mainly  then,  not  on  the 
sameness  of  place  from  which  they  both  may  come,  and  not  even  on  the  sameness 
of  some  of  the  symbolic  attributes,  but  on  the  fact,  whether  the  same  agent  in  both 
cases?  would  be  the  appropriate  one.  Now  what  I  aver  is,  that  the  agency  of  Ne- 
ro, in  the  present  case  and  under  the  present  circumstances,  would  be  manifestly 
incongruous  and  inappropriate.  It  is  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  where  our  Lord 
7cas  crucified,  who  are  enraged  against  the  witnesses  ;  it  is  they,  stimulated  by  Sa- 
tan (not  by  Nero),  who  slay  the  witnesses,  and  exult  over  their  dead  bodies.  I 
may  ask  acain  :  How  could  Nero  and  his  most  embittered  enemies  the  Jews,  co- 
operate, and  this  even  in  Jerusalem,  against  the  witnesses  in  question.-  Nero  at 
home  did  indeed  persecute  Christians,  because  he  hated  them  as  Jews  ;  but  as  to 
cooperating  in  Jerusalem  with  his  most  bitter  enemies— this  appears  too  incimgru- 
ous  to  be  supposed.  Of  course  we  are  forced  upon  the  qu(  stion  :  Is  there  no 
more  probable  interpretation  than  tliis.' 
VOL.  II.  30 


234  THE  TWO  WITNESSES :  Chap.  XI.  8. 

they  did  not  and  would  not  seek  for  deliverance  from  death.  Or  we 
may  even  suppose,  that  the  miraculous  power  which  the  witnesses  once 
liad  possessed,  ceased  when  the  work  appointed  for  them  by  Heaven 
was  done,  and  they  were  then  called  to  seal  their  testimony  by  their 
own  blood.  Such  must  have  been  the  case,  in  regard  to  the  apostles 
and  others. 

(8)  And  tliPir  corpses  shall  be  in  the  street  of  the  great  city,  which  is  spirit- 
ually named  Sodom  and  Egypt;  where  their  Lord  also  was  crucified. 

77tco/x«  is  the  reading  which  recent  critics  prefer,  rather  than  the 
vulgate  TtTMnaTa.  It  is  of  little  importance,  in  the  present  case ;  for 
TiTaua,  when  joined  with  avtar  (as  here),  must  of  course  be  (/enencaZ/y 
understood ;  and  accordingly  I  have  rendered  it  as  plural.  The  older 
Greek  used  nzoofia  in  connection  with  a  Gen.,  e.  g.  TTzwfia  dv&Qwncov, 
Tzrafia  or/.cov,  lit.  the  ruins  or  ivrech  of  men,  of  houses,  etc.  But  later 
Greek  Avriters  employ  it  as  in  our  text ;  see  Lobeck  ad  Phryn.  p.  375. 
The  mention  of  the  corpses  here,  as  lying  unburied  in  the  streets,  (for 
such  of  course  is  the  implication),  is  very  significant  of  the  contempt  and 
hatred  with  which  the  witnesses  would  be  treated ;  for  the  Jews,  above 
all  people,  were  specially  solicitous  to  bury  their  dead,  see  Gen.  23:  4, 
and  comp.  2  Sam.  21:  9—13.  Ecc.  6:  3.  Is.  14:  18—20.  22:  16.  53:  9. 

Kalnltui,  7rvevfiazr/.ai;  x.  t.  ).,  i.  e.  the  literal  name  is  not  given  in 
this  discourse,  but  such  an  one  as  describes  its  condition  and  character 
in  a  spiritual  or  moral  sense.  What  the  character  of  Sodom  was,  see 
in  Gen.  xviii.  xix,  comp.  2  Pet.  2:  6.  What  that  of  Egypt  was,  in  re- 
spect to  God's  chosen  people,  is  fully  developed  in  Ex.  i — xv.  Isaiah 
of  old  had  compared  Jerusalem  to  Sodom,  1:  9,  10 ;  and  so  did  Jere- 
miah, 23:  14,  and  Ezekiel  in  16:  46—49.  In  Ezek.  23:  8,  Israel  is  al- 
,so  represented  as  adopting  the  customs,  i.  e.  vices,  of  Egypt.  Peculiarly 
appropriate  are  these  names  here  ;  for  Sodom  persecuted  righteous  Lot, 
and  Egypt  oppressed  the  Israelites ;  and  the  Lord  displayed  his  right- 
eous judgments  against  both,  as  he  was  now  about  to  do  in  respect  to 
Jerusalem.  In  describing  Jerusalem  then  nvev^aziy.ojg,  i.  e.  as  to  its 
moral  or  religious  character,  the  significant  names  above  mentioned  are 
emijloyed  with  graphic  efiect.  But  lest  there  should  be  any  doubt  left 
in  the  reader's  mind,  it  is  added:  otiov  y.ai  6  -AVQiog  avzav  iazavQco&tj. 
This  of  course  identifies.  Avrav,  i.  e.  the  Lord  of  the  prophets  or 
witnesses,  instead  of  i]iioyv,  our,  as  the  vulgate  text  has  it.  Undoubt- 
edly the  emended  text  is  preferable  ;  because  the  object  here  is,  to  make 
a  comparison  between  the  persecution  and  death  of  the  witnesses  and 
that  of  the  Saviour. 


THE  TWO  -WITNESSES :  Chap.  XT.  9.  28^ 

(9)  And  thf  people  and  tribes  and  tongues  and  nitions  look  upon  tlieir  corpses, 
Uiree  days  and  a  half;  and  they  will  not  permit  their  corpses  to  be  laid  iu  a 
sepulchre. 

BXtTTOvaiVy  Pres.  tense.  Here  the  writer  relapses  into  the  historical 
Present,  as  in  vs.  4 — G ;  i.  e.  he  represents  the  thing  as  taking  place 
before  his  eyes.  Tliis  is  exchanged  again  ("or  the  Fut.  uqt'iaovai,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  verse,  vliieh  Fut.  is  designed  to  indicate  the  continued 
or  repeated  denial  of  burial  rites ;  for  the  repetition  of  an  action,  i.  e. 
continued  action  of  the  same  kind,  is  often  indicated  by  the  Fut.,  Kiih- 
ner's  Gramm.  §  44.  6.  2.  Here  such  a  Fut.  is  altogether  in  place,  be- 
cause burial  is  peseveringly  refused,  even  down  to  the  period  when  the 
witnesses  are  raised  from  the  dead.  Such  changes  of  tense,  however, 
are  oftener  found  fault  with,  by  some  critics,  than  investigated.  But 
surely  the  writer  of  the  Apocalypse  does  not  stand  justly  chargeable 
with  any  impropriety  here. 

'Ey.  rwv  7.awv,  etc.,  comp.  the  Hebrew  *,": ,  some  of,  a  part  of,  which 
is  often  employed  as  a  noun  ;  or  ex  may  be  equivalent  to  oi  ix,  although 
I  prefer  the  former  meaning,  ina.smuch  as  it  does  not  comprehend  the 
tvhole,  like  the  latter.  I  have  translated,  however,  without  reference  to 
the  mode  of  expression  by  means  of  the  ex.  The  meaning  plainly  must 
be,  not  that  all  nations  were  actually  assembled  in  the  city,  in  order  to 
insult  the  corpses  of  the  dead,  but  that  in  a  great  city  like  Jerusalem, 
many  foreigners  of  different  nations  were  present,  (as  is  usual  in  such 
places),  and  the  unburied  witnesses  were  openly  exposed  to  the  gaze  of 
all,  however  polluted  and  impious  they  might  be.  It  is  a  circumstance 
which  greatly  heightens  the  indignity  done  to  the  dead,  that  they  should 
be  exposed  to  the  gaze  of  polluted  foreigners. 

Three  days  and  a  half,  (like  3^  years  =  42  months  =  1260  days), 
amounting  to  half  of  the  sacred  number  seven.  This  doubtless  is  one 
reason  for  choosing  here  the  period  of  34.  But  the  reason  why  days  in 
this  case  are  chosen,  seems  plainly  to  be,  because  the  dead  bodies  could 
not  remain  beyond  such  a  length  of  time,  without  putrefaction  and  dis- 
solution. The  Saviour  remained  in  his  grave  but  three  days,  i.  e.  one 
whole  day  and  a  portion  of  two  others.  But  here,  since  vs.  1 — 3  of 
this  chapter  mention  a  period  of  three  and  a  half,  so  it  is  consonant 
with  the  context  to  continue  the  same  number  of  three  and  a  half  in  the 
text  before  us.  If,  as  many  interpreters  assume  in  explaining  the 
Apocalypse,  every  day  is  equal  to  a  year,  how  then  is  it,  we  may  well 
ask,  that  dead  corpses  could  lie  there,  in  such  a  cUmate,  for  three  and  a 
half  years,  and  not  be  entirely  consumed  ? — But  we  need  not  contend 
any  more  with  such  exegesis. 

Ovu  dcfr^Govai,  Who  will  not  permit  ?    Evidently  the  people  or  in- 


236  THE  TWO  witnesses:  Chap.  XL  10,  11. 

habitants  of  the  city.     Here  ra  m(6[xa7a  (plur.)  is  employed,  which  of 
course  makes  it  plain  that  the  preceding  nri^fia  is  used  generically. 

Were  one  disposed  to  look  for  specific  facts  here,  he  might  easily 
find  correspondent  ones  in  history.  The  foreign  Jews  and  the  Idu- 
means  rushed  into  the  city  during  the  investment  of  it  by  the  Romans  ; 
and  here,  one  might  say,  are  the  nations  and  tribes  who  come  to  gaze 
on  the  martyrs.  But  I  am  so  far  from  believing  that  this  would  be  a 
proper  method  of  interpretation,  that  I  regard  even  the  specification  of 
the  holy  city  itself,  in  this  chapter,  as  only  a  symbolical  method  of  de- 
signating what  was  to  come  upon  the  persecuting  Jews  as  a  people. 
Jerusalem  here,  as  in  numberless  cases  in  the  O.  Testame»t,  is  the 
representative  of  the  whole  land,  or  of  the  whole  nation.  The  picture 
is  more  striking  and  animated,  in  consequence  of  its  being  made  speci- 
fic in  the  representation. 

(10)  And  those  who  dwell  in  the  land  rejoice  over  them  and  make  themselves 
merry,  and  they  will  send  presents  to  each  other,  because  these  two  prophets  tor- 
mented those  who  dwell  in  the  land. 

Xai'govaiv,  historical  Pres.  again ;  evq^guivoptai,  the  same. — J7?fi- 
ipovGi,  Fut.  employed  as  above ;  see  on  v.  9.  In  this  way  variety  of 
manner  is  introduced. 

KaTOixovvzsg  im  tijg  yijg  must  plainly  mean,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  and  city.  On  another  occasion  (Rev.  6:  10),  Ewald,  to  make 
out  his  view  of  the  writer's  plan,  asserts  that  this  expression  is  generic. 
But  what  have  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  to  do  with  this  event  ? 
How  could  they  all  come  to  look  on  the  corpses  and  insult  them,  or 
have  sent  mutual  presents  during  only  three  and  a  half  days  ?  And,  in 
reference  to  the  last  part  of  the  verse,  how  could  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  earth  have  been  tormented  by  the  two  witnesses,  during  only  1260 
days  ?     Ewald  passes  these  matters  with  a — haud  anxie  quaerendum  I 

/JcxiQa  TTi'iJ-i^iovoiv  uXXfjloig,  a  very  usual  custom  everywhere,  on  oc- 
casions of  uncommon  joy  and  festivity;  see  Neh.  8:  10 — 12.  Esther 
9:  19 — 23. — 'E^aouvioav,  comp.  vs.  5,  6  above.  Or  it  may  mean,  not 
the  infliction  of  miraculous  judgments,  but  severity  of  rebuke  for  sin. 
The  former,  however,  is  the  most  appropriate,  and  therefore  the  most 
probable. 

It  is  thus  that  the  enemies  of  Christ  and  his  faithful  witnesses  exult 
over  the  supposed  downfall  and  extinction  of  their  reprovers.  But  '  the 
triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short.' 

(11)  Then,  after  three  days  and  a  half,  the  spirit  of  life  from  God  entered  into 
them,  and  they  stood  upon  their  feet;  and  great  fear  fell  upon  those  who  beheld 
them. 

nvev[ia  ^coTJg  in  -d^eov,  i.  e.  the  spirit  of  life  which  God,  the  author  of 


THE  TWO  witnesses:  Chap.  XL  12.  287 

life,  imparts  ;  so  in  Gen.  2:  7.  Job  33:  4,  "  The  spirit  of  God  hath 
made  me,  the  breath  of  the  Almighty  hath  given  me  life." — KlaiflQtv 
iv  uvToi>,',  i-  e.  entered  inio  [and  dwelt]  in  the.m  ;  for  so  we  find  iv  em- 
ployed, even  among  the  claiisic  writers,  where  the  idea  of  going  to  or 
entering  a  place,  etc.,  is  conjoined  with  the  idea  of  remaining  or  acting 
there;  see  Rob.  Lex.  iv.  No.  4,  and  N.  Test.  Gramm.  §  113.  Note  2. 

"EaiTiaav  in)  tov^'  nodag  avrdir,  taken  from  Ezek.  37:  10  ;  where 
alBO  the  breath  of  life  from  God  is  spoken  of  in  the  same  manner  as 
here.  To  stand  upon  their  feet  means  to  rise  from  the  recumbent  pos- 
ture of  the  dead,  and  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  life  and  action. — (I^o^og 
fie'yag  x.  t.  )..  is  certainly  a  very  natural  circumstance ;  for  such  terror 
was  to  be  expected  in  consequence  of  such  a  miraculous  resurrection. 
Fear  falling  upon  is  a  usual  Hebrew  idiom  ;  and  the  phrase  is  very  ex- 
pressive, for  it  represents  fear  as  coming  suddenly,  unexpectedly,  and 
unavoidably. 

Here  the  Aorist  is  employed  in  the  verbs  throughout  the  verse  ;  ex- 
actly in  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  who  so  often  represent 
that  which  is  to  come  as  already  having  taken  place,  either  because  it 
has  passed  before  them  in  vision  (which  is  the  case  here),  or  because  in 
this  way  they  can  indicate  the  certainty  of  the  events  predicted.  But 
this  method  of  employing  a  Praeterite  tense,  viz.  in  order  to  designate 
the  certainty  of  the  Future,  is  not  peculiar  to  the  Hebrews  alone  ;  the 
Greeks  often  practised  the  same  thing,  and  for  the  same  reason ;  see 
Kijhner's  Greek  Gramm.  §  443.  2,  where  are  many  examples ;  see  also 
§  15,  p.  241  of  Vol.  I.  <I>6iio>;  may  be  taken  here  in  the  sense  of 
amazement ;  or  it  may  be  construed  as  meaning  terror,  i.  e.  feai*  lest  the 
witnesses  should  again  torment  them. — The  Part,  {^tanovvreg  is  here 
employed  as  an  Imperf. ;  see  Gramm.  §  173.  2.  1  Pet.  1:  11.  Acts 
7:  26  al.  saepe.     Such  cases  are  by  no  means  unusual. 

This  resurrection  from  the  dead  is  the  more  appropriate  here,  inas- 
much as  the  witnesses  had,  like  their  Lord  and  Master,  been  slain  at 
Jerusalem.  He  rose  from  the  dead  after  three  days  ;  they  in  like  man- 
ner rise,  and  in  nearly  the  same  time. 

(12)  And  they  heard  a  loud  voice  from  heaven,  saying  to  them  :  Come  up 
hither !     And  they  ascended  to  heaven  in  a  cloud,  and  their  enemies  beheld  them. 

"Hy.ovaav,  some  Codices  read  ijxovaa  ;  which  with  Ewald  I  deem  pre- 
ferable, as  it  varies  the  narrative,  and  makes  it  more  graphic  and  lively. 
As  John  sees  and  hears  all  that  is  done  and  said,  so  IjxovGa  might  well 
be  here  employed. — 'Ev  tij  veq)t').rj,  in  a  cloud  ;  so  the  Saviour  ascended, 
Acts  1:  9  ;  and  so  probably  Elijah,  2  Kings  2:  11. 

One  question  remains.  Are  these  actual  and  literal  facts,  viz.  not 
only  the  death  of  two  witnesses,  but  their  exposure  in  the  streets  of  the 


238  THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XL  13. 

holy  city,  and  their  resurrection  and  ascension  ?  I  cannot  hesitate  to 
answer,  that  the  whole  scene  is  here  mere  symbol,  passing  in  vision  be- 
fore the  eye  of  the  seer ;  comp.  Ezek.  xxxvii.  The  meaning,  how- 
ever, which  plainly  lies  at  the  basis,  is,  that  Christians,  and  specially 
faithful  Christian  teachers,  would  be  persecuted  during  the  invasion  of 
Judea  and  the  investment  of  its  capital ;  that  some  would  be  put  to 
death  ;  that  the  enemies  of  Christianity  would  exult  in  the  belief  that 
they  had  extinguished  this  hated  religion  ;  that,  in  the  meantime,  "  the 
blood  of  the  martyrs  would  become  the  seed  of  the  church  ;"  that  the 
cause  of  Christ  would  gain  ground  and  triumph  over  all  opposition  ; 
that  his  faithful  servants  will  be  admitted  "  to  glory  and  honor  and  im- 
mortality," as  the  high  reward  of  their  fidelity  and  zeal ;  and  finally, 
that  the  enemies  of  Christianity  would  be  made  to  see  all  this,  and  be 
filled  with  amazement  and  consternation. 

(13)  And  in  that  same  hour  was  a  great  earthquake,  and  a  tenth  part  of  the 
city  fell,  and  there  were  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  seven  thousand  men  ;  and 
the  rest  became  terrified,  and  gave  glory  to  the  God  of  heaven. 

^Eidfiog  ^i'yag,  see  a  like  earthquake  after  the  death  of  Christ,  ac- 
companied by  the  resurrection  of  many  saints,  Matt.  27:  50 — 54 ;  and 
again,  when  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead,  Matt.  28:  2.  The  idea  seems  to 
be,  that  the  tombs  are  thrown  open  by  such  a  commotion  of  the  earth. 
— 'OvofiaTa  ttv&QMTzmv,  see,  on  the  use  of  ovona  in  such  cases,  the  note 
on  Rev.  3:  4.  It  is  specially  employed  in  cases  where  an  enumeration, 
as  from  a  catalogue  of  enrolment,  is  implied. 

As  to  the  tenth  part  of  the  city,  see  on  the  number  ten,  under  Rev.  2: 
10.  It  means  a  comparatively  small  part. — Seven  thousand  men  invol- 
ved in  this  destruction,  comports  with  the  usage  of  this  book  as  to  the 
number  seven  ;  and  also  with  the  probable  proportion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants involved  in  a  destruction  of  the  tenth  part  of  the  city.  Comp.  also 
2  Kings  24:  16.  So  much  however  of  the  divine  judgments  as  had 
thus  far  been  inflicted,  is  to  be  regarded,  rather  in  the  light  of  a  pledge 
for  the  full  accomphshmeiit  of  the  threatenings  that  had  been  uttered, 
than  as  the  accomplishment  itself.  The  seventh  and  last  trumpet  has 
not  yet  been  sounded.  The  consummation,  therefore,  cannot  have  yet 
arrived. 

Plain  as  this  seems  to  my  own  mind,  yet  some  distinguished  recent 
interpreters  have  laboured  to  support  a  very  different  view  of  the  sub- 
ject. Ewald  finds,  in  the  passage  before  us,  evidence  that  the  author 
means  to  spare  his  beloved  holy  city,  and  to  represent  it  as  saved  from 
impending  ruin  by  penitence  and  reformation.  So  also  Bleek  (ut  sup. 
p.  272),  and  De  Wette  (Einleit.,  Apoc),  represent  the  Jews  as  saved 
hy  penitence,  and  appeal  to  v.  13  here  in  support  of  this  opinion.     Of 


THE  TWO  WITNESSES  :  Chap.  XL  13.  289 

course  they  rcgai'd  the  remainder  of  this  chapter  as  announcing  no  ca- 
tastrophe ;  and  thoy  lind  one  only  in  chap,  xii — xix,  the  matter  of 
which  is  soineliow  connected,  according  to  them,  with  the  sounding  of 
the  last  woe-trumpet.  It  becomes  necessary,  then,  to  examine  well 
here,  whether  the  words :  o'l  Xoinol  sftq)o^oi  iyt'vovTO  x.  r.  X.  do  in  them- 
selves fairly  imply  what  these  critics  gather  from  them. 

That  the  words  in  themselves  are  capable  of  a  good  sense,  i.  e.  that 
4tey  might  well  be  employed  to  designate  true  repentance  and  conver- 
sion, is  not  to  be  denied ;  for  Rev,  14:  7  (comp.  IG:  9)  will  show  this. 
But  that  they  do  of  necessiti/  imply  anything  more  than  a  temporary 
impression  made  by  divine  judgments,  is  plainly  an  erroneous  assump- 
tion. The  N.  Testament  is  full  of  the  like  idiom,  when  speaking  of 
men  according  to  the  external  development  made  at  a  particular  time, 
when  they  are  deeply  impressed  by  divine  judgments,  wonderful  mira-  • 
cles,  or  powerful  preaching.  So  Jesus  was  dnia'Consvo^  by  all  in  the 
synagogue  at  Nazareth,  and  yet  the  same  individuals  who  applauded 
him,  soon  led  him  forth  to  cast  him  down  a  precipice ;  see  Luke  4:  15 
seq.  So  the  whole  multitude  of  Jews  who  had  seen  his  miracles,  on 
another  occasion,  are  said  "  to  have  been  filled  with  fear,  and  to  have 
glorified  God,"  Luke  5:  2G.  The  same  thing  foi*  substance  may  be 
found  in  Luke  17:  12—18.  23:  47.  18:  43.  Matt.  9:  8.  15:  31.  Acts 
4:  21,  So  Felix  trembled  at  the  preaching  of  Paul,  Acts  24:  25. 
Herod  heai'd  John  gladijj  and  did  many  things  in  consequence  of  it, 
Mark  6:  20.  The  stony  ground  hearers  received  the  xvord  with  joy ^  yet 
they  soon  became  offended,  Matt.  13:  20,  21.  Many  of  the  Jews  believ- 
ed on  Jesus,  who  nevertheless  soon  forsook  him,  John  2:  23 — 25.  8:  30 
seq.  Many  became  disciples,  who  soon  left  him,  John  G:  GO — ^d.  Si- 
mon Magus  himself  believed,  Acts  8:  13.  Ps.  106:  12,  "  Then  they  [the 
rebellious  Jews]  believed  his  words,  they  sang  his  praise."  Li  all  these 
and  many  more  texts  of  the  like  kind,  it  is  easy  to  perceive,  that  the 
sacred  writers  have  merely  said  what  appeared  to  be  matter  of  fact  from 
profession,  or  from  temporary  outward  demeanour.  AVe  must  consult 
the  context,  i.  e.  the  history  of  such  cases,  in  order  to  know  whether  the 
glory,  or  belief,  ov  fear,  or  discipleship,  in  question  is  genuine  and  per- 
manent, or  only  temporary  and  apparent. 

The  nature  of  the  case  before  us  shows,  that  only  a  temporary  fear 
and  praising  of  God  is  connected  with  the  present  instance.  For  what 
says  the  very  next  verse?  The  third  tcoe  is  yet  to  come.  But  how  so, 
if  it  is  averted  by  real  penitence  and  reformation  ?  And  besides  this, 
it  is  obvious  to  remark,  that  the  nature  of  the  writer's  plan  forbids  us  to 
adopt  the  interpretation  of  Ewald  and  others.  That  plan  is  not  yet 
consummated ;  and  nothing  seems  to  be  plainer,  than  that  consumma- 
tion is  to  be  expected  ;  yea  that  it  is  directly  and  plainly  declared  in 


240  THE  TWO  WITNESSES :  Chap.  XL  14,  15. 

V.  14.  Indeed,  when  we  view  the  whole  case,  either  in  the  light  of  the 
general  plan  of  the  work,  or  in  that  of  N.  Testament  philological  usage, 
we  may  well  say,  that  the  cases  are  rare,  at  the  present  day,  where  an 
exegesis  appears  more  arbitrary  than  in  the  present  instance  ;  I  mean 
the  exegesis  adopted  here  and  defended  by  Bleek,  De  Wette,  and 
Ewald. 

(14)  The  second  woe  hath  passed;  behold!  the  third  woe  coineth  quickly. 

But  on  whom  is  this  to  fall,  if  the  views  of  Ewald  be  adopted?  The 
consummation  is  of  course  arrested,  if  he  has  rightly  interpreted  v.  13. 
Not  so,  however,  does  the  author  himself  seem  to  view  the  subject.  He 
appears  to  consider  all  which  had  taken  place  only  as  a  prelude  or 
pledge  of  what  was  yet  to  come. 

(15)  And  the  seventh  angel  sounded,  and  there  were  loud  voices  in  heaven, 
saying  :  The  kingdom  of  this  world  has  become  [the  kingdom]  of  our  Lord  and 
of  his  Christ,  and  he  will  reign  forever  and  ever. 

The  vulgate  text  has  Xt'yovaat,  and  lyhovro  a'l  ^aaiXmu,  both  evi- 
dently attempts  at  emendation,  and  inferior  to  the  corrected  text  in  point 
of  authority.  Some  critics  are  offended  at  )JyovTes  (masc),  since  the 
subject  is  plur.jTem.,  cpcovai.  But  this  is  no  uncommon  case;  for  the 
constructio  ad  sensum  is  employed,  Gramm.  §  128.  5.  h.  The  persons 
who  utter  the  voice  are  regarded  as  speaking ;  hence  IJyovzsg.  See 
the  remarks  on  ai  .  .  .  iazareg  in  v.  4  above,  with  the  references.  In 
the  other  case,  ^aoiXulai  rov  xoa^ov  was  regarded  as  the  more  correct 
expression,  because  it  accords  better  with  the  usual  custom  of  regarding 
and  speaking  of  these  kingdoms  as  many.  But  here  the  view  of  the 
writer  was  not  correctly  apprehended.  The  kingdoms  of  the  world  are 
many,  considered  in  themselves ;  but  in  reference  to  the  sway  of  Satan, 
there  is  only  07ie  kingdom — ruled  over  by  "the  god  of  this  world." 
That  dominion  which  he  once  had,  is  now  transferred  to  another  Lord, 
and  thus  the  kingdom  is  spoken  of  as  one  or  in  the  singular.  In  respect 
to  the  scriptural  view  of  Satan's  dominion  over  the  unbelieving  world, 
see  2  Cor.  4:  4.  John  14:  30.  Eph.  6:  12.  Col.  1:  13.  Rev.  12:  17. 
20:8. 

The  kingdom  of  this  ivorldhas  become  [the  kingdom]  of  our  Lord  and 
of  his  Christ.  That  ^aotXsia  may  be  mentally  supplied  before  the  se- 
cond clause  in  the  Gen.,  is  plain ;  but  this  is  not  necessary,  since  yivo- 
(xai  may  govern  the  Gen.  here.  The  appellation  Lord,  applied  to  God 
the  Father,  is  after  the  manner  of  the  Septuagint,  which  translates  n^lT;' 
by  y.vQiog.  The  distinction  here  made  by  Lord  and  Christ,  is  the  same 
as  appears  in  Ps.  ii,  to  which  Psalm  the  expressions  here  evidently  re- 
fer.— BaoiXevaei,  i.  e.  xvQiog  ^aailevasi ;  but  still,  xvQiog  avv  zcp  Xqig- 
zco  avrov. 


CATASTROPHE  :   CuAP.  XL  1 G,  17.  241 

The  usago  of  this  book,  in  respect  to  the  praises  and  thanksgivings 
of  the  heavenly  liost,  should  be  duly  considered,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
proper  view  of  ptissages  like  the  present.  It  is  only  when  some  great 
and  deeply  interesting  event  is  about  to  take  place,  or  has  taken  place, 
that  such  passages  are  introduced.  Thus  in  chap.  5:  8  seq.,  when  the 
Lamb  was  about  to  open  the  book  with  seven  seals ;  in  7:  9  seq.,  when 
the  servants  of  God  have  been  sealed  in  their  foreheads  and  rendered 
safe ;  then,  in  the  pjissage  before  us,  at  the  consummation  of  the  first 
act  in  the  august  drama.  So  in  the  second  part  of  the  drama;  12:  10 
seq.,  on  account  of  the  victory  over  Satan;  14:  2  seq.,  in  prospect  of 
the  victory  of  the  Lamb  with  his  redeemed ;  15:  2  seq.,  when  prepara- 
tion has  been  made  to  execute  his  judgments  upon  the  enemies  of  the 
church ;  18:  20  seq.,  a  triumphal  song  over  fallen  spiritual  Babylon. 

The  only  ditficulty  in  the  case  before  us  is,  how  far  the  expression 
^aaiXst'u  X.  T.  X.  is  to  be  considered  as  extending.  The  proi)er  answer 
to  this  question  is :  So  far  as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  admit.  One 
powerful  and  bitter  enemy  of  Christianity  is  now,  or  is  speedily  to  be, 
put  down.  The  judgments  of  heaven,  which  had  been  so  gradually 
proceeding,  and  seemingly  so  slow,  are  immediately  to  be  consummated. 
The  triumph  of  Christianity  over  opposing  and  embittered  Judaism,  is 
to  be  completed.  "  Their  place  and  nation  are  now  to  be  taken  away." 
The  progress  of  the  gospel  can  no  longer  be  stayed  by  them.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  suppose  that  all  this  has  been  already  done,  as  soon  as  the 
seventh  trumpet  sounds,  i.  e.  that  all  the  world  has  been  at  once  con- 
verted. A  confident  anticipation  here,  that  the  Gospel  will  now  have 
free  course  and  be  glorified,  is  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  the  writer. 
Such  an  anticipation  he  ascribes  to  the  heavenly  world.  How  much 
the  writer  means  to  present  as  having  already  been  actually  done,  ap- 
pears in  the  sequel,  vs.  17, 18  ;  where  we  may  more  appropriately  con- 
sider it. 

The  Apocalyptist  does  not  tell  us  from  whom  the  triumphal  song  in 
this  verse  proceeds.  But  as  he  specifically  names  the  twenty-four  el- 
ders in  the  next  verse,  analogy  with  4:  8  seq.  and  5:  8  seq.  would  lead 
us  to  ascribe  the  first  shout  of  triumph  to  the  four  living  creatures,  as 
standing  nearest  the  throne  and  taking  the  lead  in  the  worship  of 
heaven. 

(16,  17)  And  the  twenty-four  elders  who  sat  before  God  on  tlieir  thrones,  fell 
upon  their  faces,  and  worshipped  God,  saying:  We  give  thanks  to  thee,  Lord 
God  Almighty,  who  art  and  wast,  that  thou  hast  resumed  thy  great  power  and 
shown  thyself  as  king. 

Respecting  the  twenty-four  elders,  see  on  chap.  4:  4  seq. — "Ensaav, 
Aor.  II.  third  plur.,  of  the  Alexandrine  form,  or  Aor.  I.  of  the  later 
Greek.     It  denotes  the  attitude  of  profound  adoration. — Kv(Jt£,  6  d^tog 

31 


242  CATASTROPHE  :  Chap.  XL  18. 

0  navzoy.QataQ  =  mx3S  np^  "^^hN. —  0  wv  xal  6  ijv  gives  intensity  to 
the  description. — Etlr^cpag,  hast  assumed  and  dost  still  hold  thy  domin- 
ion, an  appropriate  sense  of  the  Perfect;  Gramm.  §136.  Note  2.  6» 
— 'E^uolXtvaag,  hast  become  king,  or  shown  thyself  as  king,  or  acted  as 
king.  The  Aor.  designates  action  in  past  time ;  but  here  it  is  scarcely 
distinguishable  in  meaning  from  the  Perf.,  for  it  implies  that  the  office 
of  king  has  been  resumed  and  still  remains  ;  although  this  last  shade  of 
meaning  may  not,  perhaps,  have  been  before  the  mind  of  the  writer ; 
Gramm.  §  136.  3.  Note.  Such  a  usage  is  not  uncommon  among  the 
classics ;  see  Kiihner's  Gramm.  §  441.  6.  §  444.  The  Aor.  is  often 
employed  with  the  Perf.  or  Pluperf.  when  completion  is  the  prominent 
idea,  rather  than  continuance  ;  or  when  continuance  is  sufficiently  im- 
plied by  the  context.  lb. 

(18)  The  nations  indeed  were  enraged,  and  thine  indignation  came ;  and  the 
time  of  the  dead,  that  they  should  be  vindicated,  and  a  reward  be  given  to  thy 
servants,  the  prophets  and  the  saints,  even  to  those  who  fear  thy  name,  small  and 
great;  and  to  destroy  those  who  have  destroyed  the  land. 

Here  Ewald  appeals  to  t&vvi  as  meaning  Gentiles,  i.  e.  heathen  in 
distinction  from  Jews.  But  this  will  by  no  means  hold  with  certainty. 
It  is  not  unfrequent  to  call  the  Israelites  ^'iJ  and  c^'ti  ,  sometimes  in  a 
good,  mostly  in  a  bad  sense ;  for  they  are  called  heathen  (as  among  us), 
when  they  act  like  heathen.  See  and  comp.  in  both  respects,  Gen. 
35:  11.  12:  2.  Ps.  33:  12.  Is.  1:  4.  9:  2.  26:  2.  49:  7.  Ps.  2:  1,  sinn 
C'la  applies,  as  the  contest  shows,  principally  to  rebellious  Jews. 
What  then  could  be  more  appropriate  here,  than  to  call  the  persecutors 
of  Christians  ii9-i7/. — 'iiQyia&tjaav  refers  particularly  to  the  exaspera- 
tion that  led  to  the  slaying  of  the  witnesses,  or  in  general  to  the  rage 
manifested  in  destroying  Christians. — Hl&sv  tj  oQpj  oov,  i.  e.  '  When 
thou  hadst  suffered  them  to  manifest  their  rage  for  the  appointed  time, 
then  thine  oum  indignant  retribution  followed.  The  sounding  of  the 
last  trumpet  has  completed  thy  work.' 

'0  y.atnbg  xwv  vv/.Qav,  i.  'e.  the  time  in  which  they  will  be  avenged  or 
vindicated  ;  the  time  in  which  the  supplication  of  the  martyrs  (6:  9 — 11) 
that  was  accepted,  is  answered.  So  the  Inf.  xQi^/jvca,  added  for  the 
sake  of  explanation,  clearly  shows.  Heinrichs  has  pronounced  this 
Inf.  an  asperior  structura  ;  many  of  nearly  the  same  nature,  however, 
may  be  found,  both  active  and  passive,  by  examining  Winer's  N.  Test. 
Gramm.  §  45.  3.  If  it  were  necessary  to  supply  an  object  before  the 
Inf.  here,  avzovg  might  of  course  be  mentally  supplied ;  but  the  exam- 
ples in  Winer  show,  that  the  Inf.  is  often  used  for  explanation,  without 
any  express  reference  to  an  object.  The  article  tov  before  y.Qi&Pjvai 
and  dohai  would  render  the  passage  more  facile  to  the  common  reader. 
But  still,  it  is  unnecessary. 


#  catastrophe:  Chap.  XL  19.  243 

Kgi'io),  like  ::E"J,  is  generic,  and  signifies  either  to  acquit  or  to  con- 
demn, {tojudfje  includes  both),  as  the  context  requires.  Here  the  dead^ 
\.  e.  the  martyrs,  are  to  be  vindicated.  So  the  Hebrew  CB'J,  Is.  1:  17. 
Ps.  10:  18.  h:  1.  1  Sam.  24:  16.  2  Sam.  18:  19,  31.  Ps.  43:  1.  So 
XQnm  in  Heb.  10:  30  et  al. 

Joi'vai  stands  comiected  with  y.aiQi')';  mentally  supi>lied  :  '  The  time 
has  now  come,  to  ffive  the  reward,  etc.,'  i.  e.  to  bestow  the  promised  re- 
ward.— JovXoig  is  generic,  compi-ehending  all  who  serve  God  truly. 
Iliiocfi'jai^'  y.ui  «j'/'o/s,-,  prophets  such  as  the  witnesses  are,  and  saints  of 
distinguished  piety  and  character. — Toi^  q'O^iovfii'voi^',  like  dovloii;,  com- 
prehends again  all  Christians  ;  while  [ii-aqoi^-  xk)  {ityuXoi^'  are  specific, 
and  include  all  the  classes  who  can  come  within  the  meaning  of  the 
promise. 

/Jiacp{}eTnui  .  .  .  yFjv,  viz.  xaiQog  Siaqj&si'nni.  x.  t.  ).. — In  the  first 
place  x(jt&I^rat  h  generic;  for  vindicating  the  dead  will  include  the  re- 
ward of  the  righteous  and  the  punishment  of  the  wicked.  Next  come 
the  specifications,  viz.  first,  the  reward  of  martyrs  and  saints  of  every 
class ;  and  then,  the  destruction  of  persecutors.  In  this  way  all  is 
plain,  natural,  and  etisy. 

Ewald,  instead  of  interpreting  this  verse  as  having  relation  to  the 
conclusion  of  the  first  catastrophe,  (which  indeed  he  does  not  admit), 
regards  it  as  "  Praeludium  ad  omnes  visiones  sequentes,  i.  e.  as  the  pre- 
lude or  sum  of  contents  to  chap.  12:  1 — 22:  5.  Nothing,  as  it  seems  to 
me,  can  more  effectually  disturb  and  confuse  the  simplicity  of  the 
writer's  plan,  than  such  a  view  of  it. 

(10)  And  the  temple  of  God  was  opened  in  heaven,  and  the  ark  of  his  cove- 
nant appeared  in  his  temple;  and  there  were  lightnings,  and  voices  of  thunder, 
and  earthquake,  and  large  hail. 

"We  must  call  to  mind  that  all  here  is  symbol.  The  temple  of  God 
on  earth  was  a  pattern  of  the  heavenly  one,  as  conceived  of  by  the 
Jews  ;  Heb.  8:  1 — 5.  In  this  temple,  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  de- 
posited in  the  most  holy  place,  and  none  but  the  high-priest,  once  in  a 
year  on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  was  permitted  to  see  or  approach 
it.  When  the  Saviour  expired,  the  veil  that  concealed  the  most  holy 
place  was  rent,  IMatt.  27:  51,  thus  indicating  the  end  of  the  ancient  dis- 
pensation. Here  is  another  symbol  expressing  still  more  significantly, 
that  Judaism  is  now  at  its  close.  No  longer  is  the  ritual  of  the  temple 
to  be  kept  up.  Even  the  most  holy  place  is  thrown  open  to  the  eyes 
of  all.  God  is  now  to  be  approached  by  every  spiritual  worshi{)per  for 
himself  in  the  name  of  the  great  High-Priest,  the  minister  of  the  sanc- 
tuary above,  Heb.  8:  2.  9:  8. 

Such  I  conceive  to  be  the  simple  meaning  of  this  passage.     Yet 


244  CATASTROPHE :  Chap.  XI.  19.  • 

Ewald  refers  it  to  the  ark  of  the  covenant  which  the  Jews  supposed 
Jeremiah  to  have  carried  away,  (when  the  temple  was  about  to  be 
destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar),  and  secreted  on  Mount  Sinai,  or  in 
some  unknown  place.  On  the  appearance  and  triumph  of  the  Messiah, 
this  ark,  they  supposed,  would  be  restored,  and  remain  forever  in  the 
new  temple  that  was  to  be  built.  See  this  fable  at  large  in  the  remarks 
above,  on  2:  17.  But  how  this  exegesis  can  be  admissible  I  do  not  see; 
for  why  does  the  writer  employ  mcp&t]  here,  if  the  restoration  or  bring- 
ing  back  merely  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  is  meant  ?  It  is  a  very 
inappropriate  word,  to  say  the  least.  Plainly  it  stands  directly  con- 
nected with  the  7]voipj  of  the  preceding  clause,  and  the  meaning  is,  that 
in  consequence  of  the  most  holy  place  being  now  opened,  the  ark  there 
deposited  makes  its  appearance.  If  Jeremiah  did  carry  away  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  (a  thing  in  itself  utterly  incredible),  it  was  that  of  the 
temple  on  earth,  not  of  that  in  heaven.  Why  should  we  suppose,  that 
the  author  of  such  a  book  as  the  Apocalypse  believed  in  fables  so  putid 
as  these  ?  That  they  were  in  circulation  when  he  lived,  I  would  not 
deny,  because  2  Mace.  2:  4-— 7  seems  to  indicate  this ;  but  I  do  not 
find  in  the  Apocalypse  any  satisfactory  evidences  that  the  writer  of  it 
believed  in  such  things.  'Hvoijij,  Aor.  2.  pass,  irreg.  formed  as  if  the 
01  in  the  old  root  (dvoiyco)  were  immutable  and  could  not  be  shoi'tened. 
The  remainder  of  the  verse  indicates  more  directly  still  the  work  of 
destruction  which  followed  the  blast  of  the  seventh  trumpet.  The 
lightning  and  thunder  alone  might  be  nothing  more  than  the  ensigns  of 
God's  awful  presence  and  majesty  ;  as  in  4:  5.  Even  when  earthquake 
is  added,  there  may  still  be  no  more  than  a  symbol  of  ajyproaching  de- 
struction, as  in  8:  5.  But  when  hail  is  joined  with  them,  this  is  the 
sign  that  the  work  is  completed  ;  see  and  comp.  16:  18 — 21.  This  last 
symbol  may  be  boiTowed  from  the  plague  of  hail,  Ex.  9:  23 — 25  ;  but 
more  probably  it  was  taken  from  Joshua  10:  11.  Here  then  are  all  the 
indications  of  catastrophe  which  are  found  in  16:  18 — 21,  excepting  that 
the  writer  has  not  announced  the  actual  destruction  itself  so  plainly  and 
fully  here  as  there.  But  he  has  given  the  triumphal  song  which  it 
called  forth  ;  comp.  Ps.  xviii.  and  Is.  xiv.,  which  are  of  the  like  tenor 
with  this,  particularly  if  we  compare  them  with  v.  18  here.  Is  it  not 
natural  to  suppose,  moreover,  that  what  the  seven  thunders  uttered,  (but 
which  John  was  forbidden  to  relate,  10:  3,  4),  is  here  also  passed  over 
in  silence  ?  Such  a  view  affords  an  easy  and  obvious  solution  of  that 
passage.  But,  independently  of  the  declaration  in  16:  17  (jsyovE),  i\\\ 
else  here  is  of  the  same  tenor  as  there,  and  here  are  all  the  insignia  of 
catastrophe  which  are  to  be  found  there.  Why  should  we  allow  catas- 
trophe then  in  one  case,  and  deny  it  in  the  other  ?  And  specially  may 
we  ask  this  question,  when  the  very  nature  of  the  trichotomy  and  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  TO  CHAP.  XII — XIX.  ill 

heptades  employed  by  the  writer ;  the  express  declaration  of  the  angel 
in  10:  5 — 7  ;  and  the  annunciation  of  the  last  woe  in  11:  14;  all  de- 
mand a  consummation  here  of  the  first  catastrophe.  I  cannot  think  any 
point  in  the  plan  of  the  Apocalypse  to  be,  on  the  whole,  clearer  than 
this.  And  with  such  a  view  of  the  subject,  I  am  unable  to  coincide 
with  Bleek,  Ewald,  and  others,  in  their  opinion  respecting  this  matter. 
In  some  way  unaccountable  to  me,  they  suppose  the  writer  to  put  off 
the  catastrophe  until  the  close  of  the  next  gi'cat  division  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse. 


SECOND  CATASTROPHE,  OR  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  ROMAN  PER- 
SECUTING POWER:  CHAP.  XII— XiX. 

The  Jewish  power  in  Palestine,  which  had  hitherto  made  such  formida- 
ble resistance  to  the  progress  of  Christianity  and  persecuted  unto  death  so 
many  of  its  professed  disciples,  1ms  now  been  crushed.  The  Romans 
come,  and  "  take  away  l)oth  their  place  and  their  nation." 

The  Jewish  power,  moreover,  it  should  be  here  called  to  mind,  had  from 
the  first  appearance  of  Christianity,  been  opposed  to  its  development.  It 
had  not,  indeed,  been  always  in  a  state  of  actual  and  vigorous  warfare 
against  it.  But  so  often  as  particular  circumstances  occurred,  which  called 
forth  its  hostile  energies,  it  had  not  ceased  to  exert  them.  Nor  should  it 
escape  our  consideration  here,  that  this  power  had  its  seat  in  the  same  re- 
gion where  Christianity  originated.  Of  course  it  could  act  upon  it  more 
effectually  and  perniciously  than  any  other  opposing  enemy,  during  its 
eai'liest  development.  Until  very  near  the  commencement  of  the  Jewish 
war,  it  was  not  only  the  principal  and  the  oldest,  but  the  most  bitter  enemy 
of  the  Christian  church. 

From  these  circumstances  we  may  derive  a  satisfactoiy  reason,  why 
John  commences  his  work  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  persecuting 
power ;  for  this  was  first  in  order,  and  until  quite  recently,  it  had  been  first 
in  point  of  making  dangerous  opposition.  But  not  long  before  the  lime 
when  the  Jewish  war  broke  out,  Rome  was  set  on  fire  by  Nero,  and  a  bit- 
ter and  bloody  persecution  of  the  Christians  under  his  dominion  was  soon 
commenced,  in  order  that  he  might  throw  upon  them  the  odium  of  that 
transaction.  Tiiis  was  carried  on  with  such  fury  and  crueltj,  that  Chris- 
tians abroad,  particularly  in  the  great  cities  where  the  Romish  magistracy 
exercised  the  most  effectual  sway,  had  everything  to  fear  from  it.  Rome 
was  now  the  mistress  of  the  world.  Every  place  was  filled  with  her  sol- 
diery, and  trembled  before  her  rebuke.  How  could  a  small  and  feeble  band 
of  Christian  discii)les,  resist  a  power  so  universally  acknowledged  and  felt  ? 

The  dangers  and  vexations  of  Christians,  moreover,  were  greatly  in- 
creased, by  the  awakened  and  strenuous  opposition  of  the  idolatrous  priest- 
hood among  the  heathen.  Already  had  many  of  their  temples  begun  to  be 
forsaken,  their  own  character  as  idol-priests  to  fall  into  disrepute,  and  their 
influence  to  be  abridged.  Could  they  stand  by  as  idle  spectators,  uncon- 
cerned with  events  like  these .'    It  is  not  to  be  supposed.    Hence  not  only 


246  INTRODUCTION  TO  ChaP.  XII — XIX. 

the  beast  or  persecuting  civil  power,  but  the  false  prophet  or  persecuting 
reHgious  jjower,  was  fully  bent  upon  the  destruction  of  Chrisrianity. 

I  am  aware,  that  it  has  been  made  a  question  :  Whether  the  persecution 
under  Nero  extended  beyond  the  city  and  neighborhood  of  Rome  ?  But 
this  question  I  have  already  discussed ;  Vol.  I.  §  13.  p.  222  seq.  I  will 
merely  remark  here,  that  the  heathen  abroad,  for  many  years  after  Chris- 
tianity began  to  spread,  confounded  Jews  and  Christians  together,  without 
making  any  distinction  between  them.  Hence,  when  the  Jewish  war 
commenced,  (as  it  did  shortly  after  Nero  had  begun  his  persecution),  and 
was  carried  on  with  such  unexani])led  fury  and  bitterness  on  the  part  of 
the  Jews,  it  was  a  matter  of  course,  that  Christians  eveiywhere  would  be 
susjjected  and  treated  with  severity,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  suppos- 
ed to  be  Jews.  If  now  we  add  to  this,  their  proselyting  spirit,  and  their 
contempt  of  idolatry  and  of  Gentile  rites  and  superstitions,  and  also  their 
success  in  winning  disciples — how  can  it  be  otherwise,  than  that  Christians 
would  be  everywhere  more  or  less  persecuted,  during  the  Jewish  war? 
Indeed,  the  internal  state  of  the  Apocalypse  (chap,  xiii — xix.)  is  enough 
to  settle  this  question  with  every  reader,  who  believes  that  John  would  not 
appeal  to  mere  imaginary  things  instead  of  real  facts,  or  to  sufferings  merely 
anticipated  or  feared,  and  not  to  those  which  were  actually  endured.  But 
for  the  more  complete  investigation  of  this  subject — the  extent  of  Nero's 
persecution,  I  refer  the  reader  to  the  Introduction,  §  13. 

In  the  midst  of  war  raging  within  the  bounds  of  Palestine,  and  the  Ne- 
ronic  persecution  of  Christians  (often  as  Jews)  in  the  capital  and  provinces 
of  the  Roman  empire,  the  Apocalypse  was  written.  Hence  the  deep  im- 
press it  bears,  from  beginning  to  end,  of  the  state  of  the  times.  The 
churches  addressed  in  the  commencement  of  the  book,  are  plainly  address- 
ed as  being  in  a  suffering  and  persecuted  state.  The  first  part  of  the  pro- 
phetic vision,  as  we  have  already  seen,  bears  the  most  paljjable  marks  of 
the  same  state  of  things  in  Judea.  The  second  part,  to  which  we  are  now 
coming,  is  still  more  deeply  coloured  with  the  same  tints.  Even  the  third 
and  last  catastrophe  (chap,  xx.)  bears  the  like  impression  ;  for  Gog  and 
Magog,  with  all  their  hosts,  invade  the  camp  of  the  saints  in  order  to  de- 
stroy them.  But  of  the  distant  future  the  writer  gives  only  the  briefest  pos- 
sible sketch,  all  particulars  being  of  course  excluded. 

Under  such  a  monster  as  Nero,  armed  with  the  power  of  universal  em- 
pire. Christians  had  no  doubt  everything  that  was  fearful  to  expect,  when 
his  active  persecution  of  them  began.  No  wonder  that  they  were  faint- 
hearted, and  needed  encouragement  and  consolation.  John  was  fully 
aware  of  this.  He  had  already,  in  his  own  person,  experienced  the  fury  of 
the  oppressor.  But,  while  in  exile  from  his  beloved  churches,  the  visions 
of  God  pour  in  consolation  upon  his  soul.  The  veil  of  futurity  is  lifted 
up,  and  he  sees  the  beast  and  false  prophet,  after  all  their  fury  and  cruelty, 
at  last  subdued,  trampled  down,  and  utterly  defeated  in  their  malignant  pur- 
poses. Christianity  rises  from  its  apparent  fall,  and  triumphs  over  all  the 
opposition  of  earth  and  hell.  The  great  battle  of  God  Almighty  at  last 
wholly  decides  the  issue  of  the  contest ;  and  the  lake  of  fire  and  the  bot- 
tomless pit  are  the  prisons,  to  which  the  prostrated  enemies  are  sent. 

Such  is  the  principal  outline  of  the  second  catastrophe.  It  follows  the 
same  general  course  as  the  first.  But  in  its  nature  it  is  climactic,  i.  e.  the 
danger  to  the  church  is  greater  than  before  ;  the  persecution   is  more  ex- 


INTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.  XII — XIX.  247 

tensive  ;  the  stroiiirtli  of  the  opposition  is  inoro  appalliiiij;  for  wlicre  cnn  a 
refufre  be  foiiiui  from  tlie  l)looil-sli('il(liiifr  liaixl  of  tlie  luasttM-  of  tlie  world, 
iirjred  on  hy  Satan  and  seconded  by  all  the  priesthood  of  idolatry  ?  No 
wonder,  then,  that  the  writer  enters  upon  this  second  i)art,  with  api)arently 
more  than  ordinary  excitement.  This  lofty  tlif;ht,  however,  lie  sustains 
throiijrhont,  luitil  the  sonj;  of  victory  begins,  when  he  relaxes  into  a  state 
of  calmer  and  more  quiet  teelinfr,  as  exhibited  in  chap,  xviii.  The  main 
contest  is  now  over;  tlie  greatest  danger  is  pa.st;  and  therefore  he  is 
no  longer  agitated  with  sncli  deep  concern  as  to  the  consequences  of  the 
combat 

From  this  general  survey  of  the  circumstances  of  the  writer  and  liis 
times,  and  of  the  great  object  which  he  had  in  view,  let  us  now  proceed  to 
a  more  particular  examination  of  his  plan,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  he 
has  executed  it  Already  have  the  outlines  of  this  plan  been  presented  in 
the  Introduction  ^  10.  p.  184  seq.  At  present,  however,  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent and  more  mimite  account  of  it  seems  expedient,  in  order  to  aid  the 
interpretation. 

The  events  which  John  is  about  to  describe,  arc  similar  in  their  general 
nature  to  those  which  he  has  already  described.  Victory  over  the  ene- 
mies and  persecutors  of  the  church,  is  his  theme.  But  in  what  way  can 
he  best  exhibit  the  subject  .^  To  repeat  simply  what  he  has  already  said, 
would  incur  the  danger  of  becoming  tiresome  and  repulsive  to  the  reader. 
To  devise  a  plan  entirely  discrepant,  would  be  apt  to  make  an  impression 
on  the  reader's  mind,  that  the  events  described  are  entirely  discrepant. 
Thus  situated  he  chooses,  (what  every  considerate  reader  will  fully  sanc- 
tion), a  medium  between  these  two  extremes.  The  outlines  of  his  plan 
are  in  many  respects  like  those  exhibited  in  the  plan  of  the  fir.'st  catastrophe. 
Some  of  the  detail  also  bears  a  considerable  resend>lance  to  what  has  gone 
before.  But  such,  after  all,  is  the  diversity  both  in  a  general  and  particular 
respect,  that  no  one  will  be  tempted  to  comj)lain  of  sameness  or  repetition. 

The  general  features  of  resemblance  are,  that  here  as  in  the  first  part, 
everything  is  brought  before  the  reader  in  the  forn)  of  sijmbol.  From  be- 
ginning to  end  symbol  is  continuous  and  unremitting.  Here,  also,  the  pro- 
gress of  executing  the  divine  displeasure  is  a  gradual  one,  and  the  extent 
of  symbols  is  measured,  as  before,  by  the  number  seven.  The  seven  vials 
have  a  manifest  and  somewhat  close  resemblance  to  the  seven  trumpets  of 
the  first  catastrophe.  The  symbols  anticipative  and  significant  of  victory 
are  fre(|uent  here,  as  they  also  are  in  the  preceding  part  of  the  book ;  but 
still  they  are  more  fully  develo|)ed  here  than  in  that  part.  Thus  chap, 
xiv.  and  chap.  xv.  are  almost  wholly  made  uj)  of  them.  Triumi)hal  songs 
are  here  introduced  at  the  clo.se  of  partial  catastrophes,  and  specially  after 
the  fall  of  the  great  metropolis  (18:  20 — V.):  7),  as  is  also  the  usage  in  the 
])receding  jiart  of  the  book.  Literruptions  of  the  ])rogress  of  events  are 
also  admitted  here;  but  the)' arc,  on  the  whole,  somewhat  fewer  than  before. 
Such  is  cha|>.  xvii.,  the  object  of  which  is,  to  give  an  ex[)lanation  of  the 
my.stcrious  symbols  which  the  writer  had  emplojed  ;  in  resjiect  to  inler- 
rupliojis,  comp.  with  chM[)  xvii.  xviii.  chap.  vii.  and  x.,  (or  among  these  may 
be  reckoned,  in  some  jioints  of  view,  the  lament  (chap,  xviii.)  over  tiie 
ruined  metiojiolis,  before  the  final  destruction  of  the  whole  empire  as  ex- 
hibited in  chap.  xix.  The  general  tenor  of  the  whole  is  also  like  to  that  of 
the  first  catastrophe,  in  respect  to  its  representations  being  grounded  upon 


248  INTRODUCTION  TO  Chap.  XTI — XIX. 

those  of  the  O.  Testament  prophets,  with  regard  to  costume.  The  same 
general  style,  tone,  and  manner  of  conception,  reign  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  second  part  of  the  book,  as  are  exhibited  in  the  preceding  part. 
Never  was  a  sameness  of  authorship  more  fully  and  certainly  developed 
by  internal  evidence. 

But  the  DIVERSITIES,  at  the  same  time,  in  the  management  of  the  plan, 
are  many  and  very  considerable.  The  theophany  of  chap.  iv.  is  not  re- 
peated. No  sealed  book  is  here  presented.  The  elders  and  living  creatures 
mostly  disappear  from  the  scene  ;  while  angelic  interposition,  however,  re- 
mains essentially  the  same.  The  plan  commences  by  taking  a  regressive 
step,  into  the  history  of  the  past.  New  agents  of  opposition  are  introdu- 
ced. Satan,  who  appears  but  for  a  moment  (11:  7)  under  the  first  catastro- 
phe, here  acts  a  most  conspicuous  part,  and  appears  to  be  at  the  height  of 
his  efforts  and  of  his  power.  The  beast  from  the  sea  and  from  the  land — 
symbols  like  those  in  the  book  of  Daniel — are  the  symbols  of  civil  and  re- 
ligious domination  which  is  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  The  Re- 
deemer makes  his  appearance,  more  than  once,  in  person  (Chap.  xiv.  xix.), 
either  with  those  whom  he  has  saved  as  symbols  of  further  salvation,  or 
with  his  elect  warriors  in  order  to  enter  upon  the  mighty  contest.  The 
metropolis  is  first  assaulted  and  reduced  to  a  ruinous  condition  ;  and  when 
its  utter  desolation  is  about  to  be  completed,  on  one  hand,  the  triumphal 
song  over  its  fall  is  heard,  and  on  the  other  the  wailings  of  those  whose 
hopes  and  interests  were  centered  in  it.  Finally  the  remoter  provinces 
and  distant  parts  of  the  empire,  joining  all  theu*  forces  to  avenge  their 
ruined  metropolis,  are  overthrown.  Then  follows  the  punishment  of  the 
beast  and  false  prophet  with  their  followers,  the  confinement  of  Satan  for 
a  thousand  years,  and  the  general  triumph  and  peace  of  the  church. 

In  making  disclosures  such  as  these,  the  writer  had  a  veiy  difficult  and 
delicate  task  to  perform.  When  he  spake  of  the  ruin  of  Judea,  there  was 
nothing  to  make  him  timid  and  cautious.  That  power  was  in  the  progress 
of  being  destroyed,  at  the  vei-y  time  when  he  wrote  his  book.  But  not  so 
the  Roman  power.  It  was  still  at  the  height  of  its  strength.  The  Romish 
magistracy,  everywhere  on  the  alert  to  detect  and  punish  sedition  or  con- 
tumacy, would  look  with  a  jealous  and  malignant  eye  on  any  prediction  of 
its  fall,  and  specially  on  any  apparent  or  suspected  calumny  of  its  rulers. 
What  else  could  John  do,  hi  such  circumstances,  than  what  he  has  done  ? 
How  could  he  venture  upon  anything  more  than  a  symbolic  representation 
of  the  character,  state,  and  future  fall  of  the  heathen  persecuting  power, 
which  might  be  read  and  understood  by  Christians  conversant  with  the  O. 
Testament,  but  would  be  an  enigma  to  a  mere  heathen  reader  ?  Had  he 
spoken  plainer,  slander  and  seditious  purposes  would  have  been  readily 
imputed  to  liim,  and  likewise  to  all  who  possessed  and  appi'oved  of  his 
book ;  had  he  spoken  less  plain,  even  his  Christian  readers  would  have 
been  unable  to  enter  fully  into  his  meaning.  He  has  chosen  the  middle 
path.  It  was  his  imperious  duty  to  speak  to  Christians  for  their  comfort 
and  encouragement.  The  times  demanded  it,  and  fidelity  to  the  cause  of 
Christianity  could  not  dispense  with  it.  But  he  must  speak  guardedly,  i.  e. 
so  that  "  the  wise  would  understand,  but  none  of  the  wicked  would  under- 
stand," Dan,  12:  10.  Has  he  not  done  so  ?  One  might  almost  take  it  for 
granted,  that  a  heathen  of  his  day,  miacquainted  with  the  Jewish  Scriptures, 
would  regard  his  book  as  only  the  developments  of  enthusiasm  and  reve- 


tJTTRODUCTION  TO  ChAP.  XII.  249 

rie,  and  would  lay  it  aside,  perhaps,  with  mere  pity  for  the  metital  haliiici- 
uation  of  the  autlior.  The  writer  of  the  Apocalypse  has  hardly  escaped 
from  siich  a  charge,  on  the  part  of  many  who  regard  themselves  as  enli-rht- 
ened  Christians.  At  the  same  time  I  am  ftdly  persuaded,  that  a  well-read 
Christian  of  that  period  could  enter  into  the  desiarn  of  the  author,  and  un- 
derstand most,  if  not  all,  which  he  was  expected  to  understand  hy  the 
writer  of  the  book. 

Such  are  the  great  outlines  and  soine  of  the  particular  features  of  the 
second  catastrophe,  as  ap])rehended  by  my  own  mind.  In  the  general  bear- 
ing of  the  picture,  most  of  the  recent  commentators  concur  ;  its  ndation, 
however,  to  the  preceding  i>art  of  the  book,  and  some  of  its  particulais  in 
themselves  considered,  are  viewed  by  a  portion  of  critics  in  a  ditferent 
light.  Controversy  is  not  my  object  If  the  reader  finds  evidences  in  the 
further  developments  of  the  Apocalypse,  that  the  plan  which  I  have  sug- 
gested is  subsumtially  correct,  he  will  need  no  other  refutation  of  different 
views. 


THE  WOMAN  CLOTHED  WITH  THE  SUN:  CHAP.  XU. 

It  hardly  need  be  said,  that  chap.  xii.  has  given  rise  to  nn  almost  endless  varie- 
ty of  expositions.  If  it  is  viewed  (and  so  it  sometimes  has  been)  merely  as  an  iso- 
lated piece,  I  know  not  what  an  interpreter  can  do  except  merely  to  guess  at  its 
meaning.  Viewed  however  as  an  introduction  to  the  second  catastrophe,  it  may 
Be  reorarded  with  very  different  feelings  ;  and  in  this  ligiit  1  cannot  hesitate  to 
view  it.  How  it  can  be  connected  with  the  first  catastrophe,  and  yet  any  concin- 
nity  be  preserved,  I  am  not  aware. 

The  first  question  which  presents  itself,  is  :  Whether  the  writer  has  here  taken 
a  regressive  step,  i.  e.  whether,  instead  of  describing  what  is  yet  future,  he  goes 
back  to  a  brief  sketch  of  the  past,  in  order  the  better  to  enter  afterwards  upon  the 
declaration  of  the  future.  A